STUDIES iisr 




Horse Breedin 


g 


An Illustrated Treatise on the Science and 


Practice of Horse Breeding 




BY 




a. L. CARI^SON 




Published by the Author, Norfolk, Nebraska 
1910 




PRICE $2.00 





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Copyright 1910 

by 

G. L. CARLSON 

All rights reserved 



SECONl» F.PIUON 



THE KET^YOX COMPANy 

PRIXTEKS ANI> BlNIiERS 

r>ES MOIiVES, IO\VA 



€'CI.A<»7575;'3 



CONTENTS. 

PACK 

INTRODUCTION 4 

CHAPTER I. The Sexual Product of the Stallion 10 

CHAPTER II. The Sexual Product of the Mare 28 

CHAPTER III. The Fertilization of the Egg of the Mare. . 43 

CHAPTER IV. The Influence of Sex in Fertilization 61 

CHAPTER V. The Fetus and Fetal Membranes of the 

Horse 68 

CHAPTER VI. Artificial Impregnation 84 

CHAPTER VII. Pregnancy, or Gestation 107 

CHAPTER VIII. Parturition 112 

CHAPTER IX. The Selection of a Stallion 121 

CHAPTER X. Handling the Stallion 138 

CHAPTER XI. The Selection of a Brood Mare 157 

CHAPTER XII. The Care of the Brood Mare 164 

CHAPTER XIII. Sterility 176 

CHAPTER XIV. The Care of the Foal 190 

CHAPTER XV. The Breeds 198 

CHAPTER XVI. Jacks and Jennets 232 

CHAPTER XVII. Cross Breeding 238 

CHAPTER XVIII. The Phrenology of the Horse 245 

CHAPTER XIX. The Science of Judging Draft Horses... 263 

CHAPTER XX. Feeding the Horse 276 

CHAPTER XXI. Diseases of the Horse 285 

CHAPTER XXII. Barns and Barn Building 308 

CHAPTER XXIII. Breeding Facts Worth Rememhering. .318 



INTRODUCTION. 



In a former edition it was my purpose to so prepare 
the text that it would enlist the interest of the farmer- 
breeder and stallion owner. I had in mind only these 
two classes of men at that time, while in this edition it 
has been my purpose to interest the student as well. 

As before, I have left nothing undone to make brevity 
a striking feature of the text, yet at the same time I 
have endeavored to tell the story of the horse from a 
simple elemental cell, until we find him in a mature 
form. As before, I have aimed to give "The most possi- 
ble, in the smallest possible space," without sacrificing 
any of the vital facts bearing upon the .subject. The 
nature of this? work has made necessary the use of many 
technical terms, but in all cases the word more commonly 
employed to express the same thing has been given, mak- 
ing the text easy of understanding by either student or 
breeder. Every paragraph discussing a subject of gen- 
eral interest has been given a number for the purpose of 
reference, and these numbers are frequently referred to 
throughout the text. This will add some to the value of 
the work as one of reference. 

No apologies are ottered for the frequent reference to 
the draft horse. No one has a higher appreciation of the 
warm bred horse than the writer, yet the fact remains 
that the draft horse is the horse of, and for, the Ameri- 



can farm. He can be produced as easily and cheaply as 
a steer, and will sell for three or four times as much. 
Then again, while I have made a few experiments with 
light horses in breeding, nearly all my work has been 
carried on with draft horses. It is largely my own ex- 
perience and the statistics gathered and compiled by my- 
self that I am recording — I have spent much time and a 
large sum of money in such work, more I believe than has 
ever been spent in such work by all others in this country 
put together. One has only to consider some of the data 
collected to have this made clear. 

The chief object of this work has been to help in im- 
proving the horses of this country, and to be the means, 
in a measure at least, of employing better means in their 
production. That our methods have been wasteful 
throughout all the years of the past, is a fact well known 
to all breeders. There are now bred annually in this 
country 2,500.000 mares with no foals resulting. At 
$80 for each foal this means a loss of $200,000,000 an- 
nually to the horse breeders of the United States. The 
barren mare problem is no longer a national problem ; it 
is now an international one — Belgium, Canada, France, 
Great Britain, and other countries are having their 
troubles as well as ourselves. The world's loss annually 
as a result of barren mares is enough to bankrupt a 
strong government. The figures are startling. They far 
exceed $1,000,000,000 annually. Can an intelligent and 
progressive people afford to permit such a loss? 

In spite of this wasteful method no industry connected 
with the soil, or carried on in connection with the farms 
of this country, has yielded so liberal returns for the 
labor and money employed as the breeding of good horses. 



No live stock bred upon the famis of the United States 
has increased in value so rapidly as horses and mules. 
In 1869 the value of all horses and mules owned in the 
United States was $469,000,000. In 1899 the same live 
stock was valued at $607,000,000. In 1910 the value of 
this same live stock has reached the enormous sum of 
$2,500,000,000. 

Although the breeding- of horses and mules is now one 
of our most profitable industries, yet little has ever been 
done in a public way to encourage it, by either the Fed- 
eral or State Governments, or to aid the farmer and 
breeder in adopting more intelligent means of producing 
them. Bulletins without number upon other subjects of 
much less importance have been annually forthcoming, 
yet nothing upon that of producing better horses, or of 
employing more economical and intelligent means in 
their production. 

The same is true of individual help in the way of 
breeding horses. No embryologist has ever made a spe- 
cial study of the horse. There are reasons for this. The 
great Teutonic race has given to the world its most emi- 
nent embryologists. In the Teuton's native land, even 
more than elsewhere, horses have always represented too 
much value to be sacrificed for such purposes. Mares 
dying and which could be had for investigation of this 
kind were usually barren because of old age. So far as 
the horse is concerned, how the ovaries perform their 
various functions; how, when and where fertilization 
takes place ; or of the early development of the fetus 
and fetal membranes, nothing is really known. 

Our colleges and our professional men when regarded 
as a whole are many years behind the times in work of 



this kind. Even the farmer breeder iu many instances 
has passed them in progressive work and investigations 
of interest to the breeder. Our colleges from the begin- 
ning of time have been teaching that widely differing 
species or genera could not be crossed, and yet Luther 
Burbank has crossed the blackberry and apple; decidu- 
ous and citric fruits; hard woods with soft woods, and 
scores of other equally radical crosses. The same will 
yet prove possible with the crossing of our domestic ani- 
mals. It will probably require a thousand failures to 
make one success, but it will be done. Within ten years 
all our text books upon such subjects will have to be 
changed. 

AVhile the horse breeding business as a whole has 
been very profitable for many years, yet one branch of 
it, that of handling stallions for service, has been con- 
ducted at a loss. Several forces have been at work which 
are responsible for this condition. A want of a proper 
knowledge of the business, and a tainted live stock press 
are the two best known of these forces. It has been the 
policy of many of our farm and live stock journals to so 
boom the business of their advertisers that it has filled 
the country with small, cheap and unsound stallions to 
the great injury of the industry. This same press has 
taken advantage of every influence they could bring to 
bear in defeating all legislation compelling the use of 
sound stallions only. 

The world's most urgent need today, is for more men 
with special training to carry on its great work. In its 
last and best analysis the business of breeding horses does 
not differ from that of any other — only those best fitted, 
best equipped for the business shall survive. No rapid 



progress in producing better horses need be expected 
until more intelligent means be employed in producing 
them. 

Then again, 1 believe one is justified in appealing to 
the civic pride of the country, which is more or less 
developed in all mankind, upon the question of produc- 
ing better horses. I have observed that throughout all 
the rural world, the best and highest type of citizenship 
is always to be found in the districts of the best bred 
stock. To improve the live stock of a country is a 
potent means of raising the standard of its citizenship. 
The production of high-class animals calls into activity 
intelligence of the highest order. 

No country is better fitted by reason of its climate ; its 
nutritious grasses ; its abundance of grain ; its pure 
water; and the high intelliience of its breeders in the 
production of high-class horses, than a large part of the 
United States. No better evidence of this is needed than 
the fact that in nearly all the breeds we have produced 
many individuals imsurpassed in any country, and what 
can be done by a few breeders can be done by others. 

The most encouraging feature of the coming improve- 
ment in the horse breeding industry, is the kindly and 
courteous interest shown by the breeders of this and 
other coimtries in my investigations. I am under many 
obligations to veterinarians throughout all parts of the 
country for their many words and acts of encourage- 
ment. They are awakening to the fact that before a 
horse can be treated, he must be produced. In this con- 
nection I wish to acknowledge my appreciation of the 
help extended to the horse breeding industry, by the 
Kansas City Veterinary College. Never before in the 



history of such eclueation in this country has a profes- 
sional body of men done so much to help a great indus- 
try. The same appreciation is due the editor of the 
Stallion and Jack News, of Kansas City, Mo. It requires 
a large fund of both moral courage and enterprise to 
embark in a neAv and untried field of endeavor. This 
journal is devoted exclusively to the production of the 
best in horses and mules, and has taken a high position in 
advocating better methods, and the practice of higher 
business ethics in their production. 

The country is awakening as never before to the im- 
portance of the horse breeding industry to the best life 
of the country, and is appreciating as never before the 
need of educational aid in that direction. 

G. L. CARLSON. 

Norfolk, Nebr., Sept. 1, 1910. 



CHAPTER I. 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION. 

1. The Beginning of a New Life. In all animals the 
beginning of a new life can take place only when the 
reproductive elements of the two sexes are properly 
nnited. Under natural conditions this is done by the 
procreative act, or sexual union of the two sexes. These 
reproductive elements are known as spermatozoa and 
egg-cells, or ova, the former being the product of the 
stallion, while the latter are the product of the mare. 

2. The Sexual Organs of the Stallion. The origin 
of the reproductive elements of the stallion will re- 
quire some study of the genital organs, shown in figure 
1. Only the essential organs of reproduction will be 
described in this work, which consists of the testicles, 
the vasa efferentia, the epididymis, the vasa deferentia 
(vas deferens), and the vesiculae seminales (seminal 
vesicles). 

3. The Testicles. The origin of the reproductive 
element is in the testicles. These organs are suspended 
in a pouch between the thighs, which is known as the 
scrotum. This is a single sac enclosing both testicles. 
Immediately under the scrotum one finds the dartos, a 
thin laver of elastic tissue. The dartos is a dependency 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION 



11 



from the abdominal structure, and forming two cavi- 
ties, with H doubh' partition between them, througli 




Figure 1. The genital organs of the stallion, shown from 
the right side. 1, right testicle; 2, 3, vas deferens; 4, 
seminal vesicle; 5, prostate gland; 6, urethra; 7, Cow- 
per's glands; 9, fold of peritoneum; 10, vessels and nerves 
of left testicle cut off; 11, Abdominal ring; 12, bladder. 



which the penis passes. The cremaster is a muscle 
forming a partial covering for the testicle, and the 



12 



STTDIKS IN HORSE I5REF.DIXG 



tunica vaginalis is the serous covering of this organ. 

Strictly speaking the testicle proper is enclosed with 
a fibrous capsule, the tunica albuginea. This fibrous 
tissue is extended into the substance of the testicle, 
dividing the organ into separate lobules. In each lobule 
are found many seminal tubules, commencing in a 
highly convoluted portion, but ending in a straight 
tube, and piercing the tunica albuginea at the anterior 
extremity of the testicle. These seminal tubules con- 




Figure 2. The testicle of the stallion with other organs, 
dissected of their serous covering. 1, testicle; 2, glands in 
which are found the spermatoblast cells; 3, vasa efferentia; 
4, epididymis; 5, vas aberrans; 6, vas deferens; 7, sper- 
matic artery. 

sist of several layers of cells, known as the spermato- 
blast cells, which form spermatozoa. See figure 2. 

4. The Vasa Efferentia and Epididymis. The vasa 
efferentia are but the continuation of the seminal tub- 
ules which have now pierced the tunica albuginea and 
they in turn terminate in the globus major of the epi- 
didymis. No part of the genital organs of the stallion 
show such a variation in individuals as the epididymis. 



THE SEXUAL PKODUC'T OF THE S TALLIOX 13 

Never have I found two stallions the same in this par- 
ticular. In some stallions we find the head, or globus 
major, some three inches in diameter, and suddenly 
terminatino: into a small tube, or globus minor. In 
others we find a large convoluted canal of even size 
throughout its length, and I am inclined to the belief 




Figure 3. The bladder and seminal vesicles dissected of 
their serous covering. 1, bladder; 2, 2, vas deferens; 3, 3, 
seminal vesicles; 4, prostate gland; 5, ureter; 6, urethra. 

that the latter form is found in the case of the most 
virile stallions. 

5. The Vasa Deferentia. These are the excretory 
ducts of the testicles, each tube having the thickness of 
a small pencil. The semen is thus carried from the epi- 
didymis to the upper face of the bladder, terminating 



14 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



in a short constricted portion, under the prostate, into 
the ejaculatory duct. 

6. The Vesiculae Seminales. The seminal vesicles 
are the two oval bodies placed between the bladder 
below and the rectum above. They are the chief de- 
positories for the storage of semen. Here under normal 
conditions of all the bodily functions, semen may be 
stored for months. Shown in figure 3. 




Figure 4. Spermatozoa shown in two positions, and 
showing flattened form of head. 1, head; 2, middle piece; 
3, tail. 



7. The Ejaculatory Ducts. These are two short 
tubes formed beneath the prostate gland by the junc- 
tion of the vas deferens and the neck of the seminal 
vesicle, whore the duct soon opens into the urethra. 

8. Spermatic Cord. The testicle is suspended by 
means of the spermatic cord, and blood is supplied by 
the spermatic artery. 

9. The Penis. AVith this organ, which is the stal- 
lion's organ of copulation, may be concluded the chief 



THE SEXUAL PBODUCT OF THE STALLION 15 

organs of reproduction. The penis consists of erectile 
tissue and is divided into two portions, the one perma- 
nent as to place, the other free. The free portion is 
suspended in a sling known as prepuce, which is a 
sheath covered by a skin possessing an extremely fine 
texture and smooth surface. The anterior extremity 
of the penis consists of an enlargement, the glans 
penis. The blood is supplied by the external and inter- 




Figure 5. Spermatozoa of the stallion. (Sketched.) 

nal pudic and obturator arteries. The nerve supply 
is by the internal pudic and sympathetic nerves, the 
most sensitive in the nervous system of the horse. It 
is because of the very sensitive nature of this portion 
of the penis, that injury so often results from the use 
of breeding bags. The same injury to this organ may 
result from sudden and forced blows, such as kicks, or 
striking the end of the penis with any foreign object. 



16 



STUDIES IN HORSE liREEUIXQ 



Injury of a serious nature has been known to follow 
forced copulation. 

10. The Urethra. This is properly a part of the 
penis, and is a long membranous tube or canal extend- 
ing from the neck of the bladder to the glans penis. 
It is common to both generative and urinary systems. 




Figure 6. Spermatozoa of the stallion, showing the wider 
and thicker form as a result of using stains. This figure also 
shows the large corpuscles frequently found in the seminal 
fluid of some stallions. 



The commencement of the urethra is very constricted, 
but the membranous portion is more dilated. 

11. Spermatozoa. It has already been shown (3) 
that the i-ei)foductive elements, or spermatozoa, nave 
their origin in the testicles, yet a mature spermatozoon, 
or one capable of showing any other than a rotary 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLIOX 



17 



motion, has never been found in the testicles of a stal- 
lion. It requires the same process of maturation to 
develop spermatozoa, as we find in the case of the egg 
of the mare. Motion is observed as soon as the sper- 
matozoa reach the vasa efferentia, but it is still rotary. 




Figure 7. Seminal eoi-puscles found in the semen of all 
stallions. This figure also represents the semen of a sterile 
stallion in which no spermatozoa are present. 



Greater activity will be observed as they reach the 
epididymis, and more active yet when found in the vas 
deferens. Evidence of full maturity is wanting, how- 
ever, until they reach the seminal vesicles. 



18 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



The best test one can make of the full maturity of 
spermatozoa, is in experiments with external fertili- 
zation. The egg of the mare has no attraction for any 
spermatozoa found before reaching the seminal vesicles. 
Here one finds them as capable of fertilizing the egg, as 
are those secured by copulation. 

12. The Discovery of Spermatozoa. The discovery 
of spermatozoa in the seminal fluid of the males, and 
later that a spermatozoon is but a cell containing the 




Figure 8. 
nifled. 



A spermatozoon of the stallion greatly mag 



fundament or primary structure of a future being, has 
been of far reaching importance to the study of embry- 
ology. During the eighteenth century, and even up 
to the middle of the nineteenth, there was a wide diver- 
sity of opinion among the most eminent scientists upon 
this subject. In fact very little was really known. 
Spermatozoa were first discovered by a German student 
in the year 1677. 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION 



19 




20 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

13. Ovists and Animalculists. One school of physi- 
ologists held to the opinion that it was the egg that 
supplied the germ or cell from which the future being 
had its origin. They were called ovists. After the dis- 
covery of spermatozoa another school of theorists came 
into existence, who were of the opinion that the sper- 
matozoa were provided with all the organs of the 
developed animals. They were called animalculists. 
Then there were those who held to the evolution theory 
of development, and others who believed in the perfor- 
mation theory. Each of these schools and theories had 
the support of some of the master minds of that time. 
It remained for C. F. Wolff, in 1759, to give to the 
world the relative importance of the sexes in the pro- 
cess of fertizilation, and that the germ becomes organ- 
ized only in consequence of fertilization. 

14. Spermatozoa Organized. The early anatomists 
and physiologists were almost a unit in the belief that 
spermatozoa were organized. Later investigators were 
as well agreed in the theory of unorganized germinal 
matter. Better optical instruments have during the 
past twenty-five years established the organized cell 
theory of the present time. This theory is not that the 
sperm cell of the stallion is organized in the sense of 
a fully developed horse, but only in the sense that the 
primary or elemental organs are present. No one has 
been able to state the fact with more force than Hert- 
wig, when he said, "If the organ is not present, that 
which mak-^s it is." 

15. Description of Spermatozoa. The spermatozoa 
of mammals are the smallest elementary parts of the 
body. They are developed in great numbers in the 



THE SEXUAL PROIHTCT OF THE STALLION 21 

seminal fluid of the stallion, Init can be seen in it only 
by bringing to our aid the use of high magnification. 
A good penetrating eye can observe them with a mag- 
nification of 100 diameters. The best success I have 
ever had in photo-micro-graphic work is by using from 
240 to 280 diameters. A magnification of 500 diameters 
will show the width of the head at about one-sixteenth 
of an inch and the entire length at one and one-half 
inches. A spermatozoon consists of three parts, head, 
tail and a middle portion. By far the greatest width is 
found in the head, which in shape is oval, slightly 
excavated on both surfaces, and much thinner at the 
anterior end. Viewed from the side it has much the 
appearance of a wedge, as shown in figure 4. Chemical 
reactions show the head to consist of nuclear substance. 

The tail, which is composed of protoplasm, is a long, 
contractile appendage, and capable of executing ser- 
pentine motions, by means of which the spermatozoa 
can move forward in the seminal fluid with great 
velocity, relatively greater than the fully developed 
horse. The head and tail are united by a short middle 
piece, which is about one-fifth of the entire length of 
the spermatozoon. On the whole there is not the diver- 
sity of form found in the spermatozoa of the many 
species of mammals, that characterizes the egg-cell of 
the same species. 

16. Relative Size of Spermatozoa, In twenty-seven 
years of investigation, I have never found two sperma- 
tozoa of the same size, even in the same discharge, 
when measured with the photo-micograph. The size 
of the stallion has little to do with the size of the 
spermatozoa. They are always relatively larger in 



22 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

small stallions than in large ones. The spermatozoa 
discharged by an imported Shetland stallion weighing 
350 pounds, were about one-half the size of those from 
a Shire stallion weighing 2,250 pounds, the Shire being 
nearly seven times as large as the pony. The sperma- 
tozoa of Shire stallions are slightly larger than those 
of any other breed. , 

17. Photographing Spermatozoa. A gelatinous sub- 
stance incloses spermatozoa in all their parts, and which 
is distinct from the surrounding fluid. If treated with 
chemical reagents of a mild alkaline nature, this in- 
closing substance takes up stains with avidity, giving 
the spermatozoa a wider and thicker appearance than 
when not so treated. Even by this process a part of 
the tail is lost, also giving the spermatozoa a shorter 
appearance than should be given them. This can be 
better understood by comparing figure 5 with figure 6. 
The former shows spermatozoa as they appear to the 
eye without the aid of reagents, while the latter shows 
them as photographed with the aid of reagents. In 
the use of stains, whenever it is chemically possible, 
red is to be preferred to blue, as the former will take 
black, while the latter always takes white. 

18. The Seminal Fluid. The semen of the stallion 
consists in addition to the spermatozoa of a homogen- 
ous fluid — the liquor seminus — in which we observe 
minute rounded corpuscles, or seminal granules. These 
are found in the semen of all stallions both virile and 
sterile. These vary greatly as to size and numbers in 
the semen of different stallions, and in some stallions 
we find two kinds of these corpuscles, differing widely 
in size. In some instances a magnification of 200 diam- 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION 23 

eters will disclose small clusters of corpuscles of vary- 
ing shapes, and from tAVO to a dozen corpuscles in a 
cluster, and appearing sufficiently large with that mag- 
nification to be accurately counted. These take up 
stains quite readily. Figure 6 shows clusters of these 
larger corpuscles. If this same semen is placed under 
a higher magnification the smaller corpuscles common 
to all semen will be disclosed as shown in figure 7. 
These smaller corpuscles are about 1-2000 of an inch 
in diameter, and do not readily yield to chemical re- 
agents. 

19. The Development of Spermatozoa. The develop- 
ment of spermatozoa clearly demonstrates that they 
are really metamorphosed cells, and that each sperma- 
tozoon is developed out of a single seminal cell. The 
development of a spermatozoon offers the investigator 
many interesting surprises. We have already observed 
(11) that a considerable time is required in maturing 
or developing a spermatozoon and we have likewise 
observed (11) that a mature spermatozoon possesses a 
head, a tail and a middle portion. Of these three por- 
tions the flat and wedge-like head is developed from the 
nucleus, and the caudal appendage out of the proto- 
plasm. 

In the earliest stage of development at which the 
sperm cell can be recognized, only a bell shaped cell 
f.an be observed. This grows out into an elongated 
cone, the base of which becomes the point of attach-- 
ment for the middle piece. This cone now develops 
into a still more elongated cone and narrowed into a 
rod shaped structure. At this stage of development 
a retrogression is seen to take place, so far as form 



24 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

or shape js concerned, until finally it assumes the form 
of a mature spermatozoon. The progression and retro- 
gression of these changes are well illustrated in fig- 
ure 9. 

The fundament of the middle portion first makes its 
appearance at the time the nucleus begins to elongate. 
It is first observed at the base of the nucleus in the 
form of a small oval and in a short time from it the 
tail appears. 

From the above we learn that a spermatozoon passes 
through a process of development, not unlike that of 
the development of the fetus. At first there is but a 
single seminal cell out of which is developed the head. 
From the head is formed the middle piece, and finally 
the tail from the protoplasm. 

20. Number of Spermatozoa in One Discharge. The 
number of spermatozoa in one discharge of a stallion is 
from 10,000 to 75,000, depending upon the sexual vigor 
of the stallion and the frequency of service. A virile 
stallion making but one service a day will discharge 
from 50,000 to 75,000 of them at each service. The 
amount of fluid discharged at each service of a stallion 
is from four to twelve ounces. The less frequent the 
service, the larger the amount of fluid, and the higher 
the number of spermatozoa. If stallions are made to 
do service too often, the semen will not contain mature 
spermatozoa. 

21. Jacks. In the service of jacks one does not find 
as much fluid as in the service of stallions, nor does 
this fluid contain as many spermatozoa. Some virile 
jacks do not discharge more than an ounce of fluid, and 
very few of them more than three ounces. This makes 



THE SEXITAI, PRODUCT OF THE STALLIOX 25 

breeding by the capsule method more difficult than 
when using stallions to make the necessary service. 
The spermatozoa of jacks are not as tenacious of life 
as those of stallions. Scientifically speaking, no jack is 
as certain of impregnating mares, as a virile stallion. 
This is particularly true when mated with mares, since 
the production of hybrids is never as certain in the case 
of all animal life, as when the mating is of one kind. 
There is a widely distributed belief to the contrary, but 
it is an erroneous one. Because of their temperamental 
difference, jacks make a more complete service than 
stallions ; that is to say they deposit the semen in the 
uterus more often than stallions. This better service 
would result in a larger number of foals, even with a 
lower vitality of the spermatozoa. 

22. Vitality and Power of Resistance of Spermato- 
zoa. The life force of spiM'matozoa depends much upon 
the sexual vigor of the stallion from whence they came. 
In the case of the horse they have been known to retain 
their vitality for thirty days after having been intro- 
duced into the sexual passages of the mare. In dis- 
secting a mare that had been killed at a railroad cross- 
ing twenty-seven days after she had been bred, I found 
thousands of live spermatozoa attached to the mem- 
branes of the vagina, uterus and also in the intestinal 
cavity. In this case the mare had been pregnant for 
about three weeks. I have kept the spermatozoa of the 
horse under artificial conditio7is for fifteen days. At 
the end of this time I found every spermatozoon active. 
However, I made many failures before I succeeded in 
doing this. To succeed in keeping spermatozoa alive 
for any considerable time one must keep them from 



26 STimiKS IN llOKSK liKKKDINC; 

(MHiiitiii' ill <'t>iit;ict with both air and lii^lit, and a iionnal 
tempei-aturc is an absolntc ncct'ssity. They may be 
fro/.on and k('|)t I'or niontlis, wlicn tliey will show activ- 
ity npoii bcini; thawed ont, yet lil'e soon eeases uiuler 
sneh eondilions. The bottle or tnbe in which they are 
to be kept iiinst be sterilized in boiling water before 
beino- used. If kept in jar, bottle oi- culture tube, these 
nuist l)e black so as to exclude all lii^ht. IMy success 
in this came as a result of fillini^' and sealing a small 
black bottle from the vagina of a mare that had just 
been served by a stalli(ui. b]\periments which 1 made 
in testing the longevity of spermatozoon life with re- 
gard to color I'l'sulted in i-ed being next below black, 
then yellow, green, blu(> and white. 

23. Power of Resistance as Compared with the Egg. 
Both the dui-ation of life and the power of resistance 
are much greater in the spei-matozoa of the stallion 
thau in the egg of the mare. This is made necessary 
because of the egg being non-motive. In no other way 
could fertilization be accomjilished. A great division 
of labor has arisen between the two, since each has 
adapted itself to a ditferent mission. The non-mobile 
egg nuist be united with the mobile spermatozoon,which 
requires not only the migratory character of the latter, 
but a far greater duration of life as well. The egg-cell 
is very sensitive to all external infiuences, and is easily 
destroyed by influences having no etfcct upon the life 
of the spermatozoon. A normal salt solution, that is 
such a solution of about seven-tiMiths of one per cent, 
greatly stimulates the activity of spermatozoa, as do 
many weak solutions of an alkaline character, while 



TIIK SEXUAL I'KODUCT OK TlfK STAl.I.IO.N 



all acid solutions. Iiowcvcf dilute, will (|iii('kly prodiKM- 
death. 

The most destriKitivc lon-cs ol' the life oT spcniuito/oa. 
ill tlicii' order of dcstructivciicss ar(! bnctcriM, Mcids, suii- 
HliIiI and iiir. 1 li;ivc I'ound nwiny species oi' hjicler'ia, 
destructive of speriuatozoa, some of them proviii}:^ fatal 
to tlKiir existence, almost instantly. lieeause of bac- 
teria, spei'm;it<izoa will often Vfvy mystei'iously disap- 
pear soon al'tei- their di-nth ;is if hy some unseen agency. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE MARE. 

24. Receptacle for Life Germ. Some place in which 
to be is as indispensable a condition of material exist- 
ence as magnitnde or form. Nothing can be, without 
being somewhere. The life germ, the product of the 
stallion, must have some place in which to develop all 
its delicate organs. It requires both protection and 
warmth, as well as nourishment. This receptacle must 
be something which can receive and hold that seminal 
fluid in which it is floated from stallion to mare. Na- 
ture has very wisely provided the uterus of the mare 
for this important work. But this is not all, for in 
addition the mare's nature in a measure must be in- 
corporated in with its organic structure. This leads 
one up to the study of the mare; to the part she plays 
in the reproduction of her kind ; to her sexual product. 

25. The Ovum. The essential sexual product of the 
mare is the egg or ovum. In the ease of the mare these 
ova are developed and discharged from the ovaries of 
the mare, one every twenty-one days, from as early as 
the seventh month to the end of her usefulness as a 
breeder, which sometimes continues for a period of 
thirty years. A study of this subject will make it 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE MARE 29 

necessary to have some understanding of the generative 
organs of the mare. 

26. The Sexual Organs of the Mare. The generative 
organs of the mare consist of the ovaries, fallopian 
tubes (oviducts), uterus, vagina, vulva and clitoris. 
See figure 10. 

27. The Ovaries. These correspond to the testicles 
of the stallion, and are two ovoid or rounded glands, in 
shape resembling a lima bean. They are located imme- 
diately behind the kidneys, and attached to the anterior 
border of the broad ligament of the uterus. The liga- 
ment of the ovary by which the attachment of the 
same is made possible, is a cord of muscular fibres 
extending from the horn of the uterus to tlie posterior 
extremity of the ovary. Each ovarj^ has the greater 
part of its surface smooth and free. There is found 
upon its upper surface a deep depression known as the 
hilus, which affords attachment to a portion of the 
fimbriated extremity of the fallopian tube. 

Like the testicle of the stallion, the ovary is enclosed 
in a fibrous capsule, the tunica albuginea. In sub- 
stance the ovary is divided into cortical and vascular 
portions. It is in the cortical substance that are found 
the youngest and smallest Graffian follicles, but as we 
near the vasculosa the Graffian follicles become more 
fully developed. See figure 11. 

28. The Graffian Follicles. The wall of each sac of 
a Graffian follicle consists of an outer and inner layer, 
the latter being the more delicate. Inside the wall is 
a layer of cells, and surrounding the ovum is an accum- 
ulation of these cells, which is known as the discus. 



39 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 




^m^' - 

Figure 10. The generative organs of the mare. 1, 2, 
ovaries; 3,4, horns of the uterus; 5, body of the uterus; 
6, fallopian tube; 7, cervix, or neck of the uterus; 8, vagina; 
9, meatus urinarius; 10, clitoris, or female penis; 11, 12, 
broad ligaments. 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE MARE 31 

There is a eavit}" in the deeper follicles, filled with a 
fluid, the liquor folliculi, which increases in amount 
as the follicles enlarge. It is the office of the Graffian 
follicles to develop ova, which when mature burst 
through the surface of the ovary near the hilus, and 
with the liquor folliculi and some of the membrana 
granulosa are received by the expanded fimbria (29) 
and conducted to the horn of the uterus. See figures 
12 and 13. 

29. The Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts). These are 
small wavy tubes leading from near the ovaries to the 
horn of the uterus and supported in the broad ligament. 
The middle portion is very narrow, but the extremities 
are much wider. It is the office of the fallopian tubes 
to conduct the ova from the ovaries to the uterus. The 
anterior extremity opens into the peritoneal cavity, and 
its orifice is provided with several fingerlike projec- 
tions, the fim.bria. The posterior extremity opens into 
the horn of the uterus. See figure 11. 

30. The Uterus (Womb). It is the office of the uter- 
us to receive the ovum and to continue as the repository 
of the fetus until it is released by parturition. This 
organ consists of a body and two horns (cornua). 
The anterior extremity, or fundus, is connected with 
the two horns, while its posterior extremity, or neck 
(cervix) is constricted, projecting into the vagina. The 
two horns of the uterus are curved slightly upward, 
connecting with the fallopian tubes. The uterus is held 
in position by the broad or suspensory ligaments. In- 
ternally, th\^ body of the uterus communicates with the 
vagina bv means of the canal formed bv the cervix. 



STUDIES IN IIOKSE liKKKDIJs'G 




TIIK SKXUAL PKOUUCT OF THP] MARE 33 

The cavity is formed of an uneven layer of mucous 
membrane in which we find many tubular cells. 

31. The Vagina. This is but a canal situated imme- 
diately below the rectum, and leading from the cervix 
to the vulva. The widest portion is where it surrounds 
the cervix. The mucous membrane consists of many 
folds. The vagina is separated from the vulva by a 
membranous structure, the hymen (32). 





^ 


^m 


m 


% 




^^ 


^3^^m 


^ 


^m 




^M 


^^^K 


^m 


^2 


1 


1 


^ 


1 


1 



Figure 12. Section of the ovary of a mare showing Graf- 
fian follicles. 

32. The Vulva. This is the external opening of the 
genital and urinary systems of the mare, terminating 
externally with two lips (labiae). It is separated from 
the vagina by a membranous structure, the hymen (31). 
Upon the floor of the vulva some four inches from its 
external opening we find the meatus urinarius, which 
is the ope.'iing of the urethra. Upon the floor and near 
the external opening of tlie vulva is found the clitoris, 
or female penis, and which is the chief seat of pleasure 
for the mare in copulation. The mucous membrane of 



34 STUDIES IN HORSE DREEDING 

the clitoris contains many glands which secrete most 
during oestrum. Aside from the mammary glands, 
which are concerned only in the secretion of milk, 
these are the principal female organs of the mare. 

33. Comparative Study of Species. To have a full 
understanding of the sexual product of the mare, will 
make it necessary to compare this product with that of 




Figure 13. Section of the ovary of a barren mare, show- 
ing no true Graffian follicles. 

other females. In doing this I shall have occasion to 
refer quite frequently to Hertwig's work on Embry- 
ology, as well as others. I particularly mention Hert- 
wig because of his deep and thorough research work 
with the eggs of the hen, amphibia, worms, molluscs, 
echinoderms, fishes and rabbits. Other embryologists 
have at various times made some investigation of the 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE JIARE 35 

eggs of other species, but for the most part investiga- 
tions of this nature have been carried on with the eggs 
of the hen and rodents. 

34. Size of Ovnm. The one thing working the great- 
est injury to the subject of embryology, is that of 
investigating one subject only, and assuming that all 
other subjects would be the same. ]\Iore likely than 
not the one subject investigated was far from a normal 
subject. We have no better evidence of the lack of 
extensive investigation, than in the size of the egg 
of mammals as recorded by ditferent investigators. 
One investigator computes the diameter of the human 
egg at 1-200 of an inch, while another gives it at 1-25 
of an inch. One of the text books now in use on 
veterinary science gives the diameter of the egg of the 
mare at 1-200 to 1-120 of an inch, while others have 
said it is 10 times as large. 

Two things have led up to these errors. The one I 
have already mentioned (investigating one subject 
only) and the other, which is more likely to be the 
main one, is the fact that a mature egg, one ready for 
fertilization as we find it in the narrow middle portion 
of the fallopian tube, is more than twice the size of the 
same egg when discharged from the ovary. This fact 
has seemed t( escape the observation of all investigat- 
ors. The law of reversion, that of reverting to some 
primitive ancestor, is more pronounced in the case of 
the egg of all mammals, than in any one other thing 
known. In the case of birds, so far as size is concerned, 
the larger growth is made in the oviduct. In my in- 
vestigations I have always found the egg of the mare 
more uniform in size, just before or at the time of its 



3d studies in horse breeding 

rupture from the follicle, than when found in the ovi- 
duct. At the time of its release from the ovary it is 
about 1-80 of an inch, the extremes being 1-100 and 
1-60 of an inch. In the case of more than a hundred 
eggs found in the fallopian tube of young mares in 
health, the average size was about 1-12 of an inch, the 
extremes being 1-40 and 3-8 of an inch. Only once 




Figure 14. Egg of the mare. (Photo-micrograph, about 
six diameters.) 



did I ever find one approaching the larger size, this 
one being found in a virgin filly three years of age. 
This size has reference to the egg only, divested of all 
granulosa. 

35. Discovery of Mammalian Egg. The egg of mam- 
mals is so small when within the Graffian follicle, that 
it was not discovered until 1827. Before this time the 



THE SEXUAi PKODUCT OF THK MARE 37 

Graffian follicle had been taken for the egg. The dis- 
covery of the true egg by C. E. von Baer was the ])e- 
ginning also of a more careful manner of conducting 
investigations, inasmuch as it taught investigators how 
easily one could be niist;il\cn. 

36. Structure of the Egg. The egg is a large cell, 
the largest in the animal body, and consists of the yolk 
(vitellus), germinal vesicle and germinal spot. 

The yolk consists principally of a finely granular 
protoplasmic substance. Distributed through this pro- 
toplasm one finds dark fat-like granules known as 
deutoplasm, which makes the yolk opaque in propor- 
tion to the number of these granules. 

The germinal vesicle contains the large germinal 
dot, located, together with a few smaller dots, in a 
nuclear network. Surrounding the egg substance is 
an egg membrane, the zona pellucida. See figure 14. 

37. How the Egg is Formed. There are two chief 
divisions of egg formation, known as primary and sec- 
ondary formations. The former are those developed 
wholly within the ovaries, while the latter are those 
developed partly within the ovary, and partly within 
the oviduct, such as the shell upon the egg of the hen. 
The egg of the mare belongs to the former class, since 
it is developed wholly within the ovary. There are 
several changes made in the egg of the mare after it 
leaves the ovary, but as these have to do with a pro- 
cess of maturing or ripening only, it can hardly be 
said that they are developed in any manner outside of 
the ovary. 

Eggs are capable of being divided into two other 
classes, simple and compound eggs. The former are 



38 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

such as are developed in an ovary ont of a single ger- 
minal cell. The latter are those prodnced by the union 
of several cells, and formed in two different glands of 
the sexnal organs of the female. Compound eggs are 
found only in a few of the more primitive species, a 
discussion of which will occupy no place in this work. 
38. The Egg — When Discharged From the Ovary. 
Early investigators held to the opinion that the egg was 




Figure 15. Egg of the mare, greatly enlarged. A, egg 
nucleus; B, yolk; C, zona pellucida; the granules surround- 
ing the egg are known as the discus. 



discharged from the ovary during the heat period 
(oestrum). Most of the text books now in use are still 
teaching this theory. In the..case of some species I be- 
lieve this to be the rule, more particularly in those 
species where a considerable flow of blood is exper- 
ienced at this time. So far as the mare is concerned 



THE SEXUAi PRODUCT OF THE MARE 39 

there is only occasionally seen a discharge of blood, 
and when there is, it is never earlier than the third da}^ 
after the cessation of the heat period. The one thing 
more than all others which first caused me to doubt the 
correctness of this theory, was the fact that mares 
bred four or five days after the cessation of the heat 
period were more likely to be impregnated than when 
bred earlier. This one fact induced me to conduct ex- 
tensive investigations along this line, and 107 Indian 
pony mares were tried with the stallion daily until two 
heat periods had passed, that a record of these periods 
might be gained, both as to frequency and duration. 
The first day following that upon which they would 
refuse to mate with the stallion, they would be put to 
death and the ovaries and oviducts carefully examined. 
Only in one ease out of this number of mares did I find 
the egg had been discharged from the ovary at the 
close of the heat period. The one exception was that of 
an irregular mare, one the heat periods of which had 
been about 30 days apart. Here I had very conclusive 
proof that it was the development rather than the dis- 
charge of the egg that produced the heat period. Only 
in one of these mares did both ovaries develop and dis- 
charge ova at the close of the same period. In other 
words only one of these mares would be likely to pro- 
duce twins if bred at that time. These investigations 
not only settled the question in my mind as to the 
time the eg^ is discharged from the ovary, but it also 
proved quite as conclusively, that in all normal mares, 
but one egg is discharged at each period. In none of 
these eggs did I find two germinal spots, but since then 
I have found an egg from the mare showing two ger- 



40 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

niinal spots, l)ut the egg in its entirety could easily be 
regarded as a freak. 

39. Formation of the Egg. Regarding the forma- 
tion of eggs generally, and particularly those of the 
more primitive species, I can do no better than quote 
Hertwig upon this subject, in which he says: 

"In their details the eggs of the various species of animals 
differ from each other in a high degree, so that they must 
really be considered as the most characteristic for the species 
of all the kinds of animal cells. Their size, which is due to a 
greater or less accumulation of deutoplasm, varies so exten- 
sively that in some species the egg-cells can be only barely 
recognized as minute dots, whereas in others they attain the 
considerable dimensions of an ostrich's egg. The form is 
usually globular, more rarely oval or cylindrical. Other va- 
riations arise from the method in which protoplasm and deu- 
toplasm are constituted and distributed within the limits of 
the egg. There are in addition the differences of the finer 
structure of the germinative vesicle and the great variability 
of the egg-membranes. Some of these conditions are of great 
significance from their influence on the manner of subsequent 
development. These have been employed as a basis for a 
classification of the various kinds of eggs. 

"In the group of simple eggs there occur, according to the 
manner in which protoplasm and deutoplasm are distributed 
within the egg, three modifications, which are of very great 
importance in the determination of the first process of de- 
velopment. In the simplest case the deutoplasm, which or- 
dinarily is present only to a limited amount in the correspond- 
ingly small egg, is more or less uniformly distributed in the 
protoplasm. In other cases there has arisen out of this orig- 
inal condition, in conjunction with an increase in the bulk of 
the yolk material, an inequality in the distribution of the 
two egg-substances previously distinquished. The egg-plasma 
has accumulated in greater abundance at certain regions of 
the egg territory, and the deutoplasm at other regions. Con- 



THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE MARE 41 

sequently, a contrast has arisen between portions of the egg- 
cell which are richer, and those which are poorer, in proto- 
l)lasm. A further accentuation of this contrast exercises an 
extraordinarily broad and profound influence on the first pro- 
cess of development, which take place in the egg after fertil- 
ization. The changes which further on are embraced under 
the process of cleavage, make their appearance only at the re- 
gion of the egg which is richer in protoplasm, whereas the 
region which is more voluminous and richer in deutoplasm 
remains apparently quite unaltered, and is not divided up into 
cells. By this means the contrast becomes during development 
disproportionately greater and more obvious. The one part 
undergoes changes, is divided into cells, and out of these pro- 
duces the individual organs; the other part remains more or 
less unaltered, and is gradually employed as nutritive material. 
The part of the yolk which is richer in protoplasm, and to 
which the developmental processes remain confined, has been 
designated formative yolk, and the other nutritive yolk." 

"The unequal distribution of formative yolk and of nutri- 
tive yolk within the egg is accomplished in two different ways. 
In the one case the formative yolk is accumulated at one pole 
of the egg as a flat germ-disc. Inasmuch as its specific gravity 
is less than that of the nutritive yolk collected at the opposite 
pole, it is always directed upward, and it spreads itself out 
on the yolk just like a drop of oil on water. In this case the 
egg has undergone a polar differentiation; when at rest it 
must always assume a definite position, owing to the unequal 
weight of the two poles. The dissimilar poles are distin- 
guished as the animal and vegetative poles. In the second 
case the formative yolk is accumulated over the whole surface 
of the egg, and surrounds the centrally placed nutritive yolk 
as a uniformly thick, finely granular cortical layer. The egg 
exhibits central differentiation, and therefore does not as- 
sume a constant position when at rest. As in the former case 
the yolk was polar in position, so here it is central." 

40. The Nutrition of the Egg. But little thought 
or study has ever been given, regarding the nutrition 



42 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

of the egg during its early development and growth- 
If the egg-membrane, (zona pellucida) be examined nn- 
der high magnification it will be fonnd traversed by 
many pore canals, into which as long as the egg remains 
in the Graffian follicle, there penetrates very fine pro- 
jections of the follicular cells. These fuse with the egg- 
plasm, and are the source of nutrition. Any impaired 
condition of an ovary, must necessarily result in a like 
impaired condition of these follicular cells of the Graf- 
fian, and an egg incapable of fertilization is the result. 
One of the very annoying difficulties of the breeder 
can be explained away by this want of egg nutrition. 
There are many mares apparently normal, which do not 
develop ova capable of fertilization. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE. 

41. Internal and External Fertilization. The union 
of the male element with the egg of the female is des- 
ignated as fertilization. It is of two kinds. When 
fertilization takes place within the sexual passages of 
the female it is known as internal fertilization. In the 
ease of mammals, fertilization is always internal. In 
the case of many vertebrates and invertebrates living 
in water, the sexual products of both sexes are evacu- 
ated directly into the water, where fertilization takes 
place outside of the maternal organism. This is known 
as external fertilization, and is the more primitive 
method. 

42. Mature Sexual Products. Fertilization is im- 
possible without mature spermatozoa, and mature eggs. 
One of the essential things which has escaped the ob- 
servation of most investigators is that of the develop- 
ment of a spermatozoon. Many have been led to be- 
lieve that spermatozoa are created, or rather originate, 
in just the form and degree of maturity that one 
observes when they are secured at the time of copula- 
tion. One may safely assume that nothing is ever cre- 
ated. All things falling under our observation are 



44 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDIXG 



the result of some process of development. Sjxu'mat- 
ozoa are no exception to this rule. They are devel- 
oped from a very simple elemental cell, and require 
nourishment for their development as well as does the 
fetus after fertilization, or the foal after birth. 




Figure 16. An immature egg of tlie mare, sliowing large 
germinative vesicle — a, yolk protoplasm. 



The Development of Spermatozoa. Brief mention 
has already l)eeii made (11) (19) of this subject, but 
before we can proceed with the subject of fertilization, 
it will be necessary to observe more closely all the pro- 
cesses of development leading up to fertilization. 



THE FERTILIZATION OF THE EUCi OF THE JIARE 



45 



The sexual organs of the stallion which are concerned 
in the development of spermatozoa are the testicles, 
vasa eft'erentia, epiclidymus, vasa deferentia and ves- 
iculae seminales. 

The testicle is enclosed with a fibrous capsule, the 
tunica albuainea. This fibrous tissue is extended into 




Figure 17. A mature egg of the mare — a, egg nucleus, 
ready for fertilization. 



the substance of the testicle, dividing the organ into 
separate lobules. In each lobule are found many sem- 
inal tuliules, commencing in a highly convoluted por- 
tion, but ending in a straight tul)e, which pierces the 
tunica albuginea at the anterior extremity of the tes- 
ticle. These seminal tubules are made up of several 



46 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



layers of cells, the spermatoblast cells, and it is here 
that spermatozoa have their origin. Reference to this 
(3) has already been made, but I repeat this part be- 
cause of its importance to this subject. But here one 
finds only an elemental cell, capable of rotary motion 




Figure 18. Fertilization of the egg — a small portion of 
the egg becomes elevated to meet the nearest spermatozoon. 



only, such as one observes in most vegetable cells. The 
nucleus of this cell is nearly triangular, with a chro- 
matin net work. If one follows this spermatozoon into 
the vasa efferentia but little change will be observed, 
the most essential one consisting of a change in the 



THE FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 



47 



nucleus, Avliich has now assumed a long, nearly oblong 
form. It now has greater mobility, but the motion as 
before is rotary. 

When spermatozoa reach the epididymis, another 
stage of development is observed. Here the nucleus has 




Figure 19. Fertilization of tlie egg. The surface of the 
egg has been elevated still higher, until it has met the 
spermatozoon, which is boring its way into the egg. 



assumed a long and very narrow form, the true head 
of the spermatozoon beginning at this time. Here and 
in the vas deferens the middle piece and tail make 
their appearance, and the first serpentine motions are 



48 



STUDIES IN HORSE HREEDING 



observed, but only in connection with the rotary mo- 
tion already observed. 

It is in the seminal vesicles that one observes for 
the first time the mature or fully developed spermato- 
zoon. At this stage of development one observes only 




Figure 20. Fertilization of the egg. The spermatozoon 
has succeeded in penetrating the egg, leaving only its tail 
behind. It will be observed that a vitelline membrane has 
formed over the egg, since its entrance by the spermatozoon. 



the true sei-pentine movement. Two processes of devel- 
opment have been at work during the final develop- 
ment of the spermatozoon. The one progressive, inas- 
much as here the middle piece and tail have reached 



THE FERTILIZATIOX OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 49 

their final development, the latter to a great length. 
The other retrogressive, because of the nucleus assum- 
ing a form more nearly like that of an earlier stage of 
development. Figure 9 will illustrate the metamorpho- 
sis of a seminal cell into the mature seminal filament. 

44. One Cause of Sterility. A careful study of the 
development of spermatozoa is of great interest to the 
breeder, even more than to the student, because of its 
teaching us one of the causes of sterility in stallions. 
If any one of the sexual organs of the stallion become 
impaired from any cause, either spermatozoa incapable 
of the power of fertilization or no spermatozoa at all 
will be the result. This condition may be hereditary, 
or it may be of a temporary nature, the result of too 
frequent service, too much fat or a want of sutficient ex- 
ercise to stimulate all of the bodily functions. In the 
case of an eight year old sterile stallion dying of colic, 
I found the spermatoblast cells in the testicles well 
filled with seminal cells, but no cells or spermatozoa 
any where else. Although making frequent service, 
this stallion had not sinnl a foal in three years. 

45. The Egg of the Mare. The need of mature 
spermatozoa in the process of fertilization has now 
been made clear. The next essential in this process is 
the egg of the mare. In many species, including a few 
of the mammalia, sometime before the rupture of the 
Gratftan follicle the germinative vesicle ascends to the 
surface of the egg, and soon after disappears, and in 
the place where it disappeared there are formed the 
egg-nucleus and, under the e^x^ membrane or zona pel- 
lucida, one or two polar cells. Such eggs after they 
have escaped from the ovary always exhibit egg-nu- 



50 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

clens and polar cells. In the case of the mare the egg- 
nucleus is not formed until after the egg has escaped 
from the ovary. 

46. Immature Eggs. If mature spermatozoa were 
added to eggs such as I have already described, (36 
and 39). thev would still remain unfertilized. Before 




Figure 21. The first process in real fertilization has here 
begun — a, sperm-nucleus, surrounding by a protoplasmic rad- 
iation; b, egg nucleus. 

they can be fertilized they must pass through a process 
of ripening or maturing which I will now describe. 

47. Process of Maturing. This process begins with 
changes of the germinative vesicle. The germinative 
vesicle of the immature egg is shown in figure 16. 
This shows the egg as it appears at the time of its 



THE FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 51 

escape from the ovary. At tliis time the germinative 
vesicle gra dually moves from the center of the egg to- 
ward its surface, its nuclear membrane disappears per- 
mitting its fluid to escape into the surrounding yolk. 
The germinative dot breaks up into a number of 
smaller dots. By a proper treatment with reagents 
there can be recognized forming out of the degenera- 
tion of the germinative vesicle a nuclear spindle. This 
nuclear spindle pursues still further the direction al- 
ready taken by the germinative vesicle until it touches 
with its apex the surface of the yolk. At the place 
where the nuclear spindle touches the surface the 
yolk arches up into a small knob, into which half of 
the spindle advances. The cell division is completed 
b.y the knob becoming constricted at its base, detaching 
the half of the spindle as a very small cell. 

This same process is again repeated with the half 
of the spindle which remains in the egg. 

48. Polar Cells. After this division already ob- 
served there lie close together on the surface of the 
yolk two very small cells, consisting of protoplasm 
and nucleus. These cells are known as polar cells, 
as they always arise at the animal pole of the egg. 
When the second process of l)udding, or cell division, 
has been concluded, the other half of which was era- 
ployed in the formation of the second polar cell, is left 
in the cortical layer of the yolk. Out of this arises 
a new nucleus, known as the egg nucleus, which slowly 
migrates back again toward the middle of the egg, 
when we have the mature egg, ready to meet a mature 
spermatozoon, when it will become fertilized. See fig- 
ure 17. 



52 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

49. Comparative Size of Germinative Vesicle and 
Egg Nucleus. In comparing' figures 16 and 17 it will 
be observed that the germinative vesicle of the imma- 
ture egg is very large, occupying about one-third of 
the egg space, while the egg-nucleus of the mature 
egg is but a small dot, occupying but little space. 
In the ease of the former one distinguishes a well de- 
veloped nuclear membrane, a nuclear network and a 
germinative dot or nucleus. In the latter the egg- 
nucleus is almost homogeneous and is not separated 
from the protoplasm by any fixed membrane. No egg 
containing a germinative vesicle can be fertilized, be- 
cause of its immaturity. The germinative vesicle as a 
part of the process of maturing the egg, is dissolved or 
degenerates, and out of it is formed the smaller egg- 
nucleus. This fact is of the utmost importance to 
breeders, in explaining why so many apparently normal 
mares do not breed. 

50. Why Eggs Do Not Mature. The chief caus+s 
of these eggs failing to mature, are excessive fat (al- 
ways ont form of degeneration;, g-eneral debility upon 
the part of the mare, and such diseases as develop a 
high temperature. Many mares will not breed for two 
or three years after a severe attack of influenza. It is 
also well known that few mares will breed while carry- 
ing an excess of fat. 

Another condition upon the part of the mare quite 
likely to result in eggs failing to mature, is that of an 
immature condition of the mare. In several experi- 
ments with the ova of poorly developed two-year-old 
fillies, I was always unable to bring about fertilization 
by artificial, or external, means. The ova of such 



THK FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 



53 



mares, even when found in the faUopian tu])es, had 
no attraction for the spermatozoa, and when properly 
treated with reagents and examined with a hi^h power 
microscope, I would always find that immature condi- 
tion already descrihed. 

51. Union of Egg and Spermatozoon. The third es- 
sential in fertilization is to properly unite a normal 




V;.'. -• y-'^''}\^^\-.r^ -■-,'■.•■,' -.. .1 




Figure 22. In this figure it will be seen that sperm-nucleus 
and egg-nucleus have met near the center of the egg, and 
Lave become surrounded by a common protoplasmic radia- 
tion. 



mature egg with a normal mature spermatozoon. How 
this is accomplished matters little, so long as normal 
conditions are observed as to temperature, light and 
cleanliness. In natural copulation under natural con- 
ditions of mating, the stallion will discharge the se- 
men directlv into the uterus nearly everv time. Under 



54 STUDIES IN HORSE EREEDIXG 

conditions of domestication this will not occur quite so 
fre(|uently, but if all stallions be considered together 
this will occur in about 60 per cent of the services 
made. To be exact, in the case of 1196 mares bred by 
natural service (81) 19 different stallions being- used 
and the mares examined immediately after the service it 
was found that 715 had no trace of semen in the va- 
ginal cavity, while in the case of 481 of them the se- 
men, or a part at least, was deposited in the vagina. 
Quick impetuous servers will deposit the semen in the 
vagina more frequently than stallions less impetuous. 

If fertilization is the thing desired, the semen should 
be deposited in the uterus of the mare. To determine 
this I bred 50 mares with foals at foot, the foals being 
less than 36 days old, with capsules, emptying the 
fluid well back in the vagina and 27 of them were im- 
pregnated with this service. I also bred 50 mares 
with foals at foot of the same age as above, using 
capsules and semen from the same stallion, but insert- 
ing the capsule into the uterus, and ll of them were 
impregnated with this service. All the mares in this 
experiment were from 3 to 11 years of age. 

I made another experiment with mares that had not 
produced a foal within one year of date of service, and 
ranging from three to nine years of age. Of these 
50 were bred with capsules, emptying the fluid well 
back in the vagina and only 11 of them were impreg- 
nated, while of 50 bred with capsules, semen from the 
same stallion being used, but the capsules being in- 
serted into the uterus, 39 were impregnated. Sper- 
matozoa may find their way into the uterus and ovi- 
ducts if deposited anywhere in the sexual passages 



THE FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 55 

of the mare, but here we have very strong evidence 
that it is better to have the semen deposited directly 
into the uterus, and Nature has very wisely provided 
for this, by making it possible for the stallion to dis- 
charge the semen directly into the uterus of the mare. 
One can easily learn how this is accomplished by insert- 
ing the hand into a normal mare in heat, and with 
the back of the hand partly closed, try to imitate the 
action of the penis during copulation, by a forward 
and backward motion, each time pressing firmly against 
the cervix. After two or three such pressures, he will 
be able to distinguish the action of the cervix meeting 
his pressure and of the same opening two or three 
times as large as when he first introduced the hand. 
This is but the normal response to the stallion, and 
is the part assumed by the mare in copulation. It is 
here we learn why the quick impetuous server so often 
leaves the semen in the vagina. It is only because he 
is too quick for the mare, giving her no time to re- 
spond. 

52. Where Fertilization Takes Place. Fertilization 
may take place anywhere from the uterus to the an- 
terior portion of the fallopian tube, and has taken 
place in the abdominal cavity, when we have an extra 
uterine impregnation. Only once in all my investiga- 
tions have I ever known of fertilization taking place 
in any other place than the narrow middle portion of 
the fallopian tube. This narrow portion where fer- 
tilization is generally effected is somewhat posteriorly 
to the middle. Nature seems to have provided this 
narrow passage for the express purpose of making 
fertilization easy and certain. The egg lodges here 



56 STI'DIES IN HORSE BREEDIXG 

for several days, whether spermatozoa are introduced 
into the uterus or not. and as the egg fills the canal 
of this organ it is impossible for the spermatozoa to 
pass the egg. 

53, Disintegration of Semen. A short time after 
semen has been introduced into the uterus of the mare, 
a process of disintegration takes place, whereby the 
spermatozoa are set free. If the mucous membrane 
of the mare be examined with a high power microscope 
24 hours or more after the semen has been introduced, 
it will be found that the spermatozoa are all attached 
to this membrane. Their moving from one part to 
another after this time is made possible by the fluid 
always found upon this membrane. A high tempera- 
ture will have a tendency to dry this fluid, when both 
movement and fertilization will be impossible. 

54, Fertilization, The beginning of fertilization, or 
the piercing of the egg membrane by the spermatozoon 
is not accomplished in the same manner by all species. 
In the more primitive species there is no true mem- 
brane enclosing the egg as in the case of mammals. 
The latter, and especially the egg of the mare is en- 
closed in a very firm membrane, so firm in fact that 
the egg can be rolled by the aid of a needle, over and 
over again with no injury to the membrane. With 
some of the more primitive species one finds only a 
soft gelatinous substance surrounding the egg, which 
is easily penetrated. In figure 18 can be seen the first 
act in the fertilization of a fish egg. It will be seen 
that as soon as one of the spermatozoa approaches the 
egg a small portion of the surface is elevated to meet 
the spermatozoon. In figure 19 the elevation of the 



THE FKRTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 57 

egg surface is still higher and the spermatozoon has 
met it and is boring its Avay into the egg. In tigure 20 
the spermatozoon, both as a result of its own energies 
and the attractive power of the egg has succeeded in 
penetrating the egg, leaving only its tail behind. No 
sooner has the spermatozoon penetrated the egg than 
a thin vitelline membrane forms over the entire es:'^^. 



/ . ■ •• •-■■•V * 1 ' I'//- / (5"' ••'^ 

V:^:•vvf^^\•^^:x^<-:.•■.>.v 



0. 



Figure 23. Fertilization complete. Here one observes that 
sperm-nucleus and egg-nucleus have fused as shown at a. 

thus preventing the penetration of another spermato- 
zoon, even though there was no other agency at work 
to prevent this. 

The real process of fertilization is now ready to take 
place. The egg-nucleus and the spermatozoon, which 
has now assumed the form of a sperm-nucleus mu- 
tually attract each other and begin migrating through 



58 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

the yolk toward each other. This is shown in figure 
21. The sperm-nucleus soon becomes surrounded in a 
protoplasmic radiation, while the egg-nucleus shows no 
such radiation. Soon the two meet near the middle of 
the egg and become surrounded by a common radiation 
as shown in figure 22. Immediately after this meeting 
they become flattened at the surface of contact, and 
finally fuse with each other, when the act of fertiliza- 
tion is complete as shown in figure 23. Only two or 
three minutes of time is required to carry the process 
of fertilization through all its many stages herein de- 
scribed. 

55. When Fertilization Takes Place. The time 
elapsing from the introduction of spermatozoa into the 
uterus of the mare until fertilization is complete may 
be anywhere from a few hours to 30 days. Spermato- 
zoa showing great activity have been found in both the 
uterine and abdominal cavities of a mare 27 days after 
she was bred. Mares bred during one heat period fre- 
quently do not conceive until the next heat period. A 
test was made of 63 mares bred and found in heat 21 
days later but for the sake of the experiment were not 
bred at this time, and 41 of them produced foals with- 
out being rebred. If the stallion is virile and the 
mare normal in every way, semen introduced into the 
uterus should be virile for 30 days or more. 

Of all normal mares bred, probably 9 of every 10 
conceive from five to seven days after the cessation of 
the heat period. 

56. Vitality of Egg and Spermatozoa. There is a 
wide difference in the vitality of spermatozoa as com- 
pared with the egg. The former have great duration 



THE FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 59 

of life and power of resistance, while the egg of the 
mare possesses little of either. A normal salt solution 
will increase the vitality of the egg, and aid in ex- 
ternal or artificial fertilization, as does nothing else 
known at this time. The egg is extremely sensitive to 
air. light and low temperatures, while spermatozoa may 
be frozen for weeks and show motion upon being 
thawed out. In experimenting with artificial fertiliza- 
tion the egg must be kept from all natural light, a red 
light being used instead. This is true also of sperma- 
tozoa. Weak salt and alkaline solutions will quicken 
the activity of spermatozoa, while acid solutions, how- 
ever dilute will quickly produce death. 

57. Conditions Adverse to Fertilization. In experi- 
menting with semen at low temperatures, I was never 
able to impregnate mares with semen much below nor- 
mal. On one occasion I impregnated two mares with 
semen that had been quickly lowered to a temperature 
of 94 degrees. This was done by placing the filled 
extractor for two or three minutes in water at that 
temperature. If kept at low temperature for any con- 
siderable time, spermatozoa will lose their fertilizing 
properties, although they still show motion. The more 
active one finds them, the more certain of fertilization. 

I have never been able to impregnate a mare having 
a temperature above 101.7. Only once have I done so 
with a temperature as high as that. In breeding mares 
with a temperature of 101 or more, one is confronted 
with a problem not yet solved. 

58. Artificial Fertilization. So far as the horse is 
concerned, artificial fertilization is but external fertili- 
zation. The eggs of the first or primitive species were 



60 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

all fertilized externally. The external fertilization of 
the eggs of other species is no more difficult if care be 
nsed as to normal conditions. Place a mature egg in 
mature semen and fertilization is certain. It will again 
he referred to in a future chapter. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE INFLUENCE OF SEX IN FERTILIZATION. 

59. Control of Sex. No one thing interests breed- 
ers so much as the control of sex, and yet it is of little 
value to them. If one was to announce that he knew 
of a plan by which sex could be controlled, he would 
have no difficulty in securing an audience, however 
absurd the plan might be. 

Some of the early authorities held that the ovaries 
controlled the sex, one ovary developing eggs of one 
sex, the other ovary developing eggs of the other sex. 
In the early 90 's I removed the right ovary from 10 
mares and the left ovary from 10 others. At the end 
of three years all but one of them had given birth 
to foals of both sexes. 

Others held that sex originated in the testicles of the 
stallion. In 1895 I removed the right testicle from an 
eight year old imported Percheron stallion in October. 
That spring he was mated with 23 mares, resulting in 
16 foals, nine of which were fillies. The spring of 
1896 he was mated with 29 mares (having one testicle 
only) resulting in 19 foals, 11 of which Avere fillies. 
In October of the year 1896 I removed the left testicle 
from a Standard bred stallion. The spring of that 



62 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



year he was mated with 17 mares, resulting in 13 
foals, of which eight were colts. During the season 
of 1897 this stallion was mated with 21 mares, re- 
sulting in 15 foals, of which eight were colts. So far 
as these two stallions were concerned but little dif- 
ference was to be observed whether they had one tes- 
ticle or two. 




Figure 24. Sex attraction. The egg attracting the sper- 
matozoa. 



One of the old theories, and it is still living, is that 
of mating early in the heat periods for fillies and late 
for colts. Of 207 foals, the result of mating at the 
earliest possible time. 111 were colts and 96 only were 
fillies. Of 341 foals, the result of mating the last of 
the heat period, 191 were fillies and 150 only were colts. 



THE INFLUENCE OF SEX IN FERTILIZATION 63 

Of 198 foals the result of mating out of season, that 
is in between the heat periods, 101 were fillies and 
97 were colts. 

Another theory which has been given much prom- 
inence by many breeders and a few writers, is that of 
the alternation of sex. The following explanation will 
make this theory clear. If a mare was to produce a colt 



/ 



^ , 



J 










/■ 






Figure 25. Sex attraction. Wlien fertilized tlie egg offers 
no furtlier attraction to spermatozoa. 

one year, and mated with a stallion again at the first 
heat period following parturition, the next year she 
would produce a filly, but if mated at the second per- 
iod the foal would again be a colt. To put it in an- 
other w^ay, mating at the odd heat periods will pro- 
duce the opposite sex when compared with the last 



64 



STfDIES IX HORSE IJKEEDIXG 



foal, while mating at the even heat periods the foal 
would be the same. 

In 1895 I had 17 mares producing foals. These were 
all mated with a stallion at the first heat period, 14 of 
them producing foals from the first mating, and two 




Figure 26. Oell formation. Tlie first process in the de- 
velopment of tlie embryo. 



of the others from the second mating. These all pro- 
duced sexes in accordance with this theory, and I be- 
lieved for the time that I had solved the mystery of 
sex control. The next season these same mares were 
handled in the same manner, and records kept of the 
matings, and with one exception the reverse of this 



THE IXFLUENCIi OF SEX IX EERTILIZATIOX 65 

theory proved true. Here again is evidence of the 
fallacy of short time experiments. 

Several other theories, some quite well known, while 
others were not so well known, have ended the same 
way. Some of them would make a very fair showing 
for one year, only to go wrong the next. Among these 
theories were such as moon influence, watering before 
and after service, the stallion hanging his head at the 
right or left side of the mare during- copulation as 
well as scores of others equally as absurd. 

60. Sex Attraction. The only control of sex is that 
of sex attraction, and that is impracticable to the 
breeder for the present at least. The magnetic forces 
of sex are much more potent than we know, and give 
us a key to sex control which could be carried out 
quite successfully if it were profitable, but it is not. 
In the animal kingdom all normal males are mag- 
netically positive, while all normal females are mag;- 
netically negative. A perfect male, that is one endowed 
with all the masculine power possible for his kind, 
will invariably be positive in sexual character. A per- 
fect female, that is one feminine to a marked degree 
will invariably be negative in sexual character. It 
is this sex attraction, and nothing else, which attracts 
the spermatozoon of the stallion to the egg of the 
mare. The ovum or eg:g will be of the same magnetic 
character .-is the mare developing it. If a mare is 
feminine in a high degree, colts rather than fillies 
would be the result, while if a mare of a masculine 
character was mated with a stallion wanting in mas- 
culinity, fillies rather than colts would be the result: 
If a mare of an intermediate magnetic temperament 



66 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

was mated with a stallion of like temperament a foal 
of either sex could be the result. I now have in mind 
a mare that produced nine colts in as many years, 
all sired by the same stallion, and by changing stal- 
lions she produced three fillies in succession by the 
second stallion. The number of breeders who have 
had similar experiences are legion. 

61. Sex Attraction Shown by External Fertilization, 
In experimenting with external or artificial fertiliza- 
tion I was surprised at the power of this attraction. 
In placing a mature egg of the mare into mature se- 
men of the stallion, only a certain per cent of the 
spermatozoa would be attracted to it, and these could 
not be kept from it. Even though separated from the 
egg by the aid of a needle, they will immediately re- 
turn to it upon being liberated. Place an egg from 
another mare into this same semen and one observes 
a distinctly different number of the spermatozoa that 
are attracted to it. Why this difference? Figure 24 
shows the attraction the egg has for spermatozoa, but 
this work is intended for practical subjects only, and 
the above question will have to go unanswered for the 
present. The purpose in putting the question, is a hope 
that the reader may give it much thought on his own 
account. 

62. Want of Sex Attaction a Cause of Barrenness. 
A stallion and mare could be so magnetically alike 
that the egg would have no attraction for the sper- 
matozoa, and barrenness would be the result so far as 
these two were concerned. In my experience with ex- 
ternal fertilization I have found this to be a fact. The 
remedy is to try a change of semen. A stallion may 



THE INFLUENCE OF SEX IN FEKTILIZATIOX 67 

be virile and a mare fecund, yet fail as breeders when 
mated. This happens more often than most men be- 
lieve. 

63. Result of Sex Control. It will be seen that sex 
can be controlled to the satisfaction of the investigator, 
but not in a way satisfactory to the breeder. In making 
matings to result in a certain sex, might be the means 
of losing every other quality for which one had la- 
bored for years. If sex alone is wanted one must bear 
in mind that male spermatozoa are attracted to nega- 
tive ova only, and that matings must be made with 
reference to this fact. 

64. Attraction Lost at Time of Fertilization. Ref- 
ference has already been made (54) to the fact that as 
soon as the egg has been penetrated by a spermatozoon, 
the formation of a vitelline membrane prevents others 
from penetrating it. This is unnecessary, for as soon 
as the egg is penetrated by a spermatozoon, it has no 
attraction for others. No sooner has this process of 
fertilization been accomplished than one observes all 
other spermatozoa turning in other directions. This 
is well illustrated in figure 25. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE 
HORSE. 

65. Cell Division. Following fertilization a further 
development begins with the division of the egg-cell, 
or cleavage. The fusion of the egg nucleus and sperm- 
nucleus results in a cleavage-nucleus, which always oc- 
cupies the middle of the egg, and forms the center of 
a radiation which affects the whole yolk mass. This 
soon begins to be slightly elongated, becoming less 
distinct, and finally results in a figure resembling a 
dumb bell. The nucleus which represents the handle 
of this dumb bell figure is composed of chromatin and 
a nonchromatic substance. The latter forms into a 
bundle of very minute fibres converging at their ends 
to a point. The chromatin forms into small individ- 
ual granules, known as chromosomes, and which cor- 
respond in numbers with the fibres of the nonchromatic 
substance. In some species these resemble a V shaped 
figure. Two exceedingly minute bodies, out of which 
occupies the exact center of each of the two previously 
mentioned systems may be observed at this time, and 
which are known as centrosomes. In this scheme of 
cleavage or cell division, half of these chromosomes 



THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 69 

are derived from the eoo-nncleus, and half from the 
sperm-nucleus. 

66. Principles of Growth. Thus far a simple prin- 
ciple only has controlled the development of the em- 
bryo, that of cleavage or cell division, from which has 
been derived a cell colony. This is illustrated in fig- 
ure 26. This principle of development is not sufficient 




Figure 27. Embryo five days after fertilization. 

for the production of the more complicated forms 
which adult animals possess, and two others here su- 
pervine to complete the development already begun, 
namely, the principle of unequal growth and that of 
the division of labor. 

67. Principle of Unequal Growth. In the growth 
oi the embrvo, if the cells of a cell membrane divided 



70 STUDIES IX HORSE LREEDIXG 

uniformly, the result would be a uniform increase in 
the surface of the membrane in all directions, but the 
pressure due to growth causes the new cells to assume a 
direction in the line of least resistance, by which means 
the different glands and organs are formed. 

68. Principle of the Division of Labor. While the 
division and growth of cells may in general determine 




Figure 28. Embryo seven days after fertilization, show- 
ing development of the middle germ layer. 

the growth and form of the animal body, there is 
another principle, the division of labor, which is but 
the principle of duty or function. The more highly 
an organism is developed, the more its cells differenti- 
ate themselves for the duties of life, some assuming 
the function of nutrition, others that of motion, others 



THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 71 

that of sensibility, and still others that of reprodnc- 
tion. This division of labor makes a greater degree of 
completeness in the execution of the individual func- 
tions possible. By this means we are given gland- 
cells, muscle-cells, nerve-cells, and sexual-cells. The 
cells performing the same duty will be found grouped 
together and constitute a special tissue. 




Figure 29. Embryo nine days after fertilization. Note the 
meeting of tlie amniotic fold over the back of the embryo. 

69. Folding. There is still another force at work 
in the development of the embryo, that of folding. It 
would be impossible to form tubular parts of the ani- 
2nal organism in any other manner. The intestinal 
and other canals must be formed in this manner. If 
the membrane be folded into the interior of the body, 



72 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

the process is known as invagination, while if the fold 
projects free beyond the surface of the body it is 
known as evagination. 

70. — Germ Layers. The principle of folding already 
referred to (69) is the chief means of body formation. 
In the earliest development of the embryo there arise 




Figure 30. Embryo eleven days after fertilization. The 
chorion is developed at this time. 

larval forms which at first are composed of two, and 
later of fonr membranes. The first two are known as 
the two primary germ layers, and the later two as the 
middle germ layers. This larval form composed of two 
germ layers is known as the gastriila. The mass of 
cleavage-cells developing into a sac-like germ is known 



THE FETT'S AXD FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 73 

as the blastiila. There are four different kinds of blas- 
tuhie. according to the amount and distribution of yolk, 
found in different species of vertebrates, and four kinds 
of gastrulae to correspond with them. 

71. Fetal Membranes. There are developed with 
the permanent ()r<ians of the embryo others which have 




Figure 31. Embryo seventeen clays after fertilization. 

no significance for the embryo after birth, but which 
serve during the egg and fetal stage of existence, 
either for protection, respiration or nutrition. These 
are cast off at birth, or undergo a retrogressive devel- 
opment at some stage of fetal existence. Uniformity 
does not prevail, even among mammals, in respect 
of this. In a work such as this, onlv brief mention can 



74 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



be made of many interesting processes and changes in 
the development of the fetus, and these only as they 
have reference to the horse. The most striking differ- 
ence in the development of the fetus of the horse as com- 
pared with other species, is the rapidity of development 




Figure 32. Embryo twenty-one days after fertilization. 
A, fundus of uterus; b, liorns of tlie uterus; c, cervix; d, 
amnion; e, chorion; f, umbilicus and allantois; h, heart. 

through the early stages of fetal growth, which is more 
rapid than that of any other mammal. In no other 
mammal can sex character be determined as early as 
the thirty-third day, when the gestation is anywhere 
near as long as that of the horse. The egg of the mare 



THE FETUS AXD T'ETAL MEMBEANES OE THE HORSE 



75 



contains more yolk than most mammals, although rela- 
tively smaller than in many others. And lastly, the 
place of attachment of the fetal membranes is more 
uncertain than in the case of any other mammal. 




Figure 33. Embryo thirty-three days after fertilization. 
At this stage of development, the sex character can be de- 
termined. A, attachment of fetal and maternal membranes. 
It will be observed that as pregnancy advances, the uterus 
becomes relatively wider, the horns shorter and narrower, 
and the cervix shorter and firmer. At this stage of devel- 
opment the vunbilicus has become as firmly attached to the 
membrane of the uterus as it ever becomes. 



72. Classification of Mammals. Reference has al- 
ready been made (71) to the several ways in which 
the fetal membranes of mammals are developed. This 
will necessitate a brief classification of mammals into 
groups, to the end that the growth and development 



76 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



of the fetal membranes of the horse may be the better 
understood. In the early stages of development the 
fetal mem])ranes of mammals present a striking similar- 
ity to those of reptiles and birds. One finds a yolk-sac, 
an amnion, a serous membrane or chorion, and an al- 
lantois. One finds that the embryo is united with the 
extra-embryonic area in the same manner, by means 
of a dermal and intestinal volk-stalk. But in mam- 




Figure 34. A fetus developing in the fallopian tube. 



mals as soon as the yolk is exhausted some portion 
of the fetal membranes are converted into an organ of 
nutrition for the embryo, by entering into closer re- 
lation with the mucous membrane of the uterus. In 
some instances they are very simple, in others more 
complicated organs. Because of these differences in 
the manner of drawing sustenance from the maternal 



THE FETITS AXD FKTAL ilEMBKAXES OF THE HORSE 77 

membranes, mammals are divided into three groups or 
classes. 

The First is where the serosa (chorion) is retained 
in its primitive condition. To this group belong the 
marsupials, such as the kangaroo. In these the chor- 





Figure 35. A, shows fetus attached to membrane in the 
horn of the uterus. This is the usual place of attachment 
in the horse. 

ion retains its smooth surface, and as it lies close to 
the mucous membrane of the uterus, it can absorb nour- 
ishment from the latter and transmit it to the deeper 
lying embryonic parts without being attached to it. 

The Second group of mammals make intra-uterine 
nourishment possible by the serosa being converted into 
a villous layer, or true chorion. In this group the 
mucous membrane of the uterus and chorion generally 



78 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

unite in some measure. The horse belongs to this 
group. 

The Third group consists of those mammals devel- 
oping special organs for the purpose of intra-uterine 
nutrition. This condition has been made possible by 
separate portions of the chorion having assumed dif- 
ferent characters, owing to the unequal size and dis- 
tribution of the villi. Some parts of the chorion may 
have no villi and the surface will be smooth, while on 
other parts may be found villi extremely long, the 
latter being very firmly attached to the membrane of 
the uterus. When many of these parts have arisen on 
one chorion they are called cotyledons. These are 
found in the ruminants. 

73. Achoria and Choriata. Mammals developing no 
villi on the surface of the outer embryonic membrane 
are known as achoria, while those developing villi are 
known as choriata. Fetal and maternal membranes 
can thus become more firmly united with each other. 
The result is that at birth a larger or smaller tract of 
the mucous membrane of the uterus is also cast off, and 
is known as decidua. This is less noticeable in the 
horse than in any other mammal, while in man the 
entire superficial surface of the uterine membrane is 
cast off. 

74. How the Fetus Develops. In figure 27, is shown 
a vesicle or fetus at the fiftli day of development. The 
middle germ layer is in full process of development, yet 
no folding process has as yet taken place. In figure 
28, the middle germ-layer has spread out over and 
now encloses an easily distinguishable body cavity. The 
embryonic fundament is in the act of being constricted 



THE FETUS AND FETAL SIEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 79 

off from the blastodermic vesicle. The head and tail 
of the embryo, by foldings of the separate layers, 
have been elevated from the area pellucida, and a 
cephalic and pelvic part of the intestinal tract, (the 
fore and hind gnt) have arisen, with an anterior and 
posterior entrance, which open toward the cavity made 
by the folding of the vesicle. 

At the same time occurs the development of the 
amnion, which is the inner sac in which floats the 
embryo. In the figure above referred to, one can 
see that the anterior fold of the amnion has bent over 
the head, and the posterior fold over the tail. The 
outer sac, which later must frequently be referred to, 
is the chorion. In some of the mammals these two sacs 
become one toward the end of gestation, l)ut in the 
horse they do not. 

In figure 29, it will be noticed that the amniotic folds 
have not only greatly enlarged, but have grown to- 
ward each other until their edges meet over the back 
of the fetus. In the horse this meeting of the am- 
niotic fold occurs at the ninth day, earlier than in any 
other mammal known. At this stage of development, 
or slightly earlier, one first recognizes the first trace 
of the allantois, which is the excretory sac, and most 
important organ of respiration. It takes its origin 
from the posterior portion of the hind gut, at a time 
when the walls of this gut are still in process of forma- 
tion. It enlarges rapidly into a vesicle, which grows 
out into the body cavity. At the same time the blind 
end enlarges, while the proximal part becomes nar- 
row, forming into a hollow stalk, the urinary duct or 
urachus. 



80 STUDIES IN HORSE ISREEDING 

In figure 30, can be seen a fetus of the mare at the 
eleventh day. At this stage of development the chor- 
ion (serosa) has become completely detached from the 
amnion. This also differs in different mammals. It is 
at this stage that the serosa permanently becomes the 
chorion. This has been brought about by the first 
appearance of villi upon the outer surface of the se- 
rosa. These villi are but small evaginations or hair 
like growths, upon the outer surface of the chorion. 
It is not until the eleventh day that they make their 
actual appearance. These villi grow into the mem- 
brane of the uterus, thus uniting the fetal membranes 
of the horse, as in those of other mammals, and rare- 
ly does one find villi upon the chorion in the case of 
the horse, except in a very small portion at one pole. 
In no mammal is there such a variance in respect of 
this as in the horse, for in some instances I have 
found no villi at the twenty-first day. In about sev- 
enty-five per cent of cases there will be no villi except 
at one pole. In the attachment or connection of the 
fetal and maternal membranes, they occupy a smaller 
space, relatively, than do those of any other mammal. 
It is because of this, that there is never but a loose 
attachment, as compared with the membranes of other 
mammals, and occasionally no attachment whatever. 

In figure 31, is shown a fetus at the seventeenth day. 
It will be seen that the cavity of the allantois has di- 
minished and the yolk-sac has become the vitillerie 
duct. At this stage the allantois becomes attached 
to the chorion, or rather suspended between the amnion 
and chorion. From this on no material changes take 
place, the principal change being one of growth. 



THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 81 

In figure 32, one sees a fetus slightly older than the 
one in the preceding figure. The most noticeable 
change is in the beginning of an attachment to the 
membranes of the mare. In this and the succeeding 
figure the fetus is shown attached to the fundus, or 
body of the uterus. This rarely occurs in the case 
of the horse and is only shown thus to show a change 
in development. 

In figure 33, can be seen a fetus at the thirty-third 
day. Excepting size, and a few minor changes which 
will be mentioned later, one sees a fetus with all the 
outward appearance of a mature fetus. The sex can 
be determined and the outward form is practically 
that of a mature fetus. The extremities are relatively 
a little shorter, as well as the head, but for all this 
the fetus could l)e recognized by anj'- one as that of 
a horse. 

75. Hair. In the growth of the hair, the first to 
be seen is that of the future mane, which makes its 
appearance at about the sixth month. The covering 
of the body begins at the shoulders and neck, extend- 
ing backward and downward, and from the feet up- 
ward, completing its covering around the navel. There 
is a difference in mares of about a month as to the 
covering of the fetus with hair, but this will occur 
from the eighth to the ninth month. 

76. Place of Attachment. As to the place of ac- 
tual attachment, the horse furnishes an interesting 
study. In figure 34, can be seen a fetus attached to 
the membrane of a fallopian tube. This was found 
thirty days after semen had been introduced into the 
\iterus of the mare, and it is doubtful if it would ever 



82 STUDIES IN HORSE BBEEDING 

have changed its position except as its own growth 
would have forced it backward into the horn of the 
uterus. I have several times found younger embryos 
in the same location. 

In figure 35, can be seen a fetus in the extreme end 
of the horn of the uterus. This is the place where 
most of them become attached, when attachment takes 
place. This 'will also account for nearly all mares 
carrying their fetuses upon one side, more than upon 
the other. Occasionally the ovum drops to the bottom 
of the uterus and well back toward the mouth, becom- 
ing attached in such a manner as to entirely close the 
uterus. In such cases the uterus cannot be dilated 
at the time of parturition, and the mare will need as- 
sistance in delivery. It sometimes requires much effort 
to open or dilate the uterus in such attachments, and 
there is some danger of flooding, following such deliv- 
eries. 

77. Amniotic Fluid. The amnion at first lies close 
on the surface of the embryo, but later becomes ex- 
tended by the accumulation of fluid, the liquor amnii. 
This fluid at first contains about seven-tenths of one 
per cent of salt, together with albumen and other sub- 
stances. It continuously increases in its salt solution, 
until at the end of gestation it sometimes contains as 
much as three per cent. In most mammals, and es- 
pecially in man, the volume of amnion fluid is greatest 
at about two-thirds of the period of gestation, when 
it decreases until the time of birth. In the horse it 
continues to increase up to the time of parturition. 

78. Sex Character. Only one more matter is worthy 
of mention in this chapter, that of full development 



THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 83 

of sex. Both the ovaries and testicles begin their 
development at a very early period in the liorse, prob- 
ably earlier than in any other mammal. The testicles 
of the male begin to descend at about the ninth month, 
reaching the scrotum from a few days, to three weeks 
before birth. The difference in time in this matter is 
more the result of inheritance than any other cause. 
The get of some stallions are always born with the 
testicles in the scrotum, while the get of other stal- 
lions are born with the testicles above the inquinal 
ring. 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BREEDING. 

79. There Are Three Essentials to success in the 
production of foals. These in the order of their import- 
ance are fecund mares ; virik=' stallions or jacks, and the 
uniting of these in a normal manner. So far as this 
subject is concerned, normality will mean anything 
not destructive of life in any of its forms, with which 
we have to deal. 

80. Virile Sires a Necessity. The impregnation of 
mares cannot be expected unless we have sperma- 
tozoa of a high vitality with which to do the work. 
The need of this has been shown in nearly every chap- 
ter of this work. Nor should we begin onr work of 
breeding mares by the capsule method, nntil we know 
the stallion or jack that is to furnish these spermato- 
zoa has been tested and found in breeding condition. 
One has no right to expect a mare to produce a foal 
just because a capsule filled with some fluid of un- 
known quality has been inserted into her uterus. A 
stallion that is not a breeder by natural service, will 
not prove a breeder by capsule service. 

81. Where Semen is Deposited. So far as the stal- 
lion is concerned, the only advantage the capsule offers, 



THE CAPSULE METITOn OF liREEDING 85 

is in the fact that every service is a complete service, 
while the stallion makes onl.y about 60 per cent of 
complete services. In the case of 1196 mares bred by 
natural service, 19 different stallions being used and 
the mares examined immediately after the service, 715 
were found with no semen whatever in the vaginal 
cavity, while in tlie case of 481 of them the semen, 
or a part at least, was deposited in the vagina. Here 
we have an average basis upon which to work. Some 
stallions make more complete services than others. Yet 




Figure 36. The Carlson semen extractor. Owned by the 
Kansas City Impregiiator Co., Kansas City, Mo. 

if we take all stallions into consideration, we will 
have only aboitt 60 per cent of complete services. 
Stallions of the draft breeds will discharge the semen 
directlj' into the uterus more often than those of the 
harness or warm breeds, and jacks more often than 
either (21). In equine copulation. Nature intended 
the semen to be deposited in the uterus of the mare. 
These 40 per cent of incomplete services are the result 
of the stallion being too long in the penis; leaving the 
mare too quickly, or some malposition of the cervix. 



86 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

This gives the capsule method a great advantage over 
the natural service in the way of a better service. 
From the view point of using the stallion it has an- 
other advantage and a very important one. In breed- 
ing small or crippled mares, there is no danger of in- 
jury to such mares. 

82. Sterile Mares. Mares that are sterile must not 
be expected to produce foals because of a capsule ser- 
vice. There are many mares that will not settle when 
bred by the natural method, that settle at once when 
bred with a capsule. Most of these mares will be found 
to be those with some malformation of the neck of 
the uterus. All such mares breed readily when served 
by the capsule method. 

83. The Capsule Convenient for Patrons. Another 
advantage the capsule service has over the natural 
service, is the one of mare owners always being able 
to secure a service. It is disappointing, to say the least, 
for the owner of a mare to go eight or ten miles with 
his mare, only to find that service has already been 
made. In such cases a mare owner has no choice but 
to remain over night, or return home without the ser- 
vice. When the capsule method is practiced the stal- 
lion can be billed to make his daily service at a stated 
hour. In this event it matters not whether one, three 
or ten mares are on hand to be bred, they can all be 
served with one service of the stallion. During the 
season of 1908 I bred 11 mares with one service of 
a stallion, and 10 of them produced live foals with no 
further service. 

84. Breeding Mares Out of Heat. The advantage 
of most value to the breeder in the use of the capsule 



THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BREEDING 



87 



method is in being able to breed mares when not in 
season. Mares bred out of heat settle more readily than 
when bred in heat. In a record covering several years, 
I have obtained nine per cent more foals from mares 
bred out of heat than from those bred when in heat. 




Figure 37. Breeding chute, in wliich to breed mares. 
This is not a necessity, but a great convenience. 



This makes it both convenient and profitable. Most 
mares do not take kindly to being served by the stallion 
when not in heat, yet are easily served by the capsule 
method. 



88 



STUDIES TX HORSE RREEDIXG 



85. Age a Factor in Fecundity. The breeding con- 
dition of the mare is the first thing to learn when 
mares are brought to you to be bred. With reference 
to this the most essential thing is her age. The fol- 
lowing table is for a period of 29 years. The stallions 
used were all pure bred stallions. Some of the mares 
were bred several times. The average per cent of 
foals resulting is given in the nearest whole number. 
This has reference to live foals only. The age given 
was that of the mares at the time thev were bred. 



sTo. of 


Age of 


No.of 


Per cent 


klares 


Mare 


Foals 


of Foals 


189 


2 


81 


42 


203 


3 


94 


46 


391 


4 


157 


40 


462 


5 


240 


52 


676 


6 


434 


64 


901 


7 


658 


73 


973 


8 


779 


80 


1219 


9 


1001 


82 


1082 


10 


837 


77 


994 


11 


667 


67 


831 


12 


501 


61 


752 


13 


393 


52 


636 


14 


299 


47 


598 


15 


170 


28 


423 


16 


103 


23 


380 


17 


65 


16 


272 


18 


43 


15 


201 


19 


25 


12 


122 


20 


14 


11 


97 


over 20 


9 


9 



This table shows that it does not pay the owner of 
a stallion to breed mares after thev are 14 vears of 



THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BREEDING 89 

age, unless the fee is paid at the time of service. A 
little better than 90 per cent of these old mares produc- 
ing foals, were those with foal at foot. As long as 
one keeps an old mare breeding and in reasonably 
good physical condition, she is likely to continue a 
breeder. If she is not bred for a year or two she 
rarely breeds again. 

The poor showing made by the two year old fillies 
is only because of poor feeding and poor development. 
Well fed and reasonably well developed fillies of this 
age breed as readily as mares of any age, while fillies 
that have not been well fed, do not mature an ovum 
of sufficient vitality to l)e capable of fertilization. In 
my experiments with artificial fertilization, I was never 
able to fertilize the ovum of an undeveloped filly but 
two years old, while an ovum from a filly of the same 
age, but well developed would always become fer- 
tilized. In my breeding, fillies of this age have in- 
creased in fecundity in recent years as a result of the 
better care being given them. 

The three and four year old mares make a poor show- 
ing because of trouble at this age with their teeth. 
Dentition at this time causes a somewhat congested 
condition, which is antagonistic to breeding. Even the 
five year old mares do not make as good a showing as 
those of more mature years. This table teaches us 
that by far the largest part of the foals are produced 
by mares from seven to eleven years of age. The 
nine year old mares leading them all, while those 
eight years of age are a close second. The mares from 
the ages of 7 to 11 years inclusive, averaged better 
than 75 per cent, while for the entire number, it was 



90 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 




5 P 



c 


01 


o 


> 


•(-1 


n 










r/j 


-i-> 


O 


a 


Ph 


<u 






00 


03 


oo 






U 




0) 


s 

M 


6C 


fa 





THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BREEDING 91 

only 57 per cent. The most valuable information which 
this table contains is in showing how rapidly one can 
lower his per cent of foals, by breeding mares of 
doubtful fecundity. This necessarily means a shrink- 
ing of profits to the stallion owner. 

86. Oestrum. The heat period is the next thing 
to be considered in capsule breeding. The most dif- 
ficult things one has to overcome in breeding, are the 
superstitions of our early ancestors. Because their 
forefathers held to certain foolish beliefs, is proof con- 
clusive to the minds of some men that they should 
hold to the same beliefs. That any one could be found 
believing a mare came in heat every nine days is difficult 
of belief, yet there are thousands of such men here in 
the United States who really believe such things. Then 
there are others who believe mares come in heat every 
15 days, and others again who believe it is 18 days 
If a mare was bred upon the last day of one heat period 
and did not conceive, she would be in heat again 15 
days later, but this has nothing to do with the heat 
period, for this same mare would have been found in 
heat three weeks from the date of the last service. 
The only way to determine the frequency of heat per- 
iods is to try them daily for two or three months, 
keeping a record of both the frequency and duration 
of such periods. In many such records which I have 
kept, I have found the heat period to be 21 days from 
the beginning of one period to the beginning of the 
following one. In all of the several thousand mares I 
have bred, I have always had them returned for trial 
21 days after breeding them. There are a few ir- 
regular mares, some of them going 30 days or even 



92 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 




THE CAPSULE METTIOl) OF BREEDING 93 

longer between snch periods, while others seem to be 
in heat nearly all the time. Snch mares are not regu- 
lar breeders. 

The Duration of the Heat Period in mares is from 
fonr to nine days in the case of all norinal mares. 
About 85 per cent go from five to seven days. We 
have already learned (38) that the ovum is not dis- 
charged until after the heat period is passed. Because 
of this, the later a nuire is bred the more certain she 
will be of conceiving. If she could be bred about the 
second day after the heat period is passed, she would 
be almost certain to conceive. It is safe to say that 
75 per cent of all mares are bred too early in the heat 
period for best results. As soon as owmers notice any- 
thing out of the ordinary with their mares, they will 
rush them off to the stallion. This in many instances 
necessitates their returning them. It is not always 
convenient for the owner of the mare to take her to 
the stallion for service upon a certain day. Yet he 
should aim to do so as late in her heat period as 
possible. It should be his purpose to work for foals 
when he has his mares bred. If he will co-operate with 
the stallion owner in this direction, many more foals 
would be the residt. The duration of the heat period 
in a few mares is but a few hours. 

87. Nervous Breeders Produce Few Foals. The 
temperament aiul hal)its of mare ownei's have nuich to 
do with the success of capsule or any other manner of 
breeding. Those men who are nervous, who are alwa.vs 
in a hurry, or who can never get anything done soon 
enough to suit them, are men who produce but few 
foals. If a man wants foals, he must not be in a hurry, 



94 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

either before or immediately after breeding his mares. 
When I see men driving aAvay with their mares after 
securing service for them, as if they had but a few 
minutes in which to reach their homes, I quite ex- 
pect to do that worlv over again 21 days later. The 
men who own breeding mares, are men who are willing 
to devote a little time in having their mares bred, to 
the end that foals may be obtained. Such men are 
never in a hurry when they are having their mares 
bred. Nor do such men hurry their mares at any 
time. "We have already learned (140) that Nature has 
provided that no rushing of matters be done at mating 
time. We have learned that many visits to the mare 
are made by the stallion before they mate. We have 
further learned that mating is delayed until the heat 
period is well advanced. It will be well for all inter- 
ested in the subject of foals to remember these things. 
Give the mare abundance of time to reach the stallion. 
Give her ample time .after the service in reaching 
home, and do not breed her until the heat period is 
well advanced, or even past. 

88. Manner of Taking Mares to Stallion, How the 
mare is taken to the stallion has something to do 
regarding the number of foals resulting. A record kept 
of farm mares, used only for work upon the farm, and 
taken to the stallion in various ways gives us the fol- 
lowing : 

No. of 

Mares No. of Per cent 

Bred How Taken to the Stallion Foals of Foals 

983 Driven double to wagon 631 64 

819 Driven double to buggy 477 58 



THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BREEDING 95 

No. of 

Mares No. of Per cent 

Bred How Taken to the Stallion Foals of Foals 

427 Led by halter 299 69 

166 Ridden 69 41 

2395 1476 61 

Again these mares were selected because of the uni- 
form condition under which they were kept when at 
home. They were all grade draft mares. The average 
age of each class was less than one year in difference. 
The class showing the largest nnmber of mares was 
those driven in hitched double to farm wagon. These 
produced 64 per cent of foals. The next largest nnm- 
ber of mares were those driven double to buggy. These 
produced 58 per cent of foals. At first thought one 
would be inclined to believe the buggy would be the 
easier and better hitch. But the tendency or desire 
to drive faster when so hitched can not be overcome. 
It is the faster driving which produces the lower per 
cent of foals. Those led in produced 69 per cent of 
foals, the best showing made by any, while those 
brought in to be bred by riding them made a very 
poor showing when the quality and condition of the 
mares are considered. It will be well for owners of 
stallions or jacks to advise their patrons to adopt any 
other plan of 1n-inging in their mares. 

89. Clothing For the Operator. The preliminary 
work preparing the way for capsule breeding is now 
about done. The next step is to prepare the operator 
for his work. The first thing for him to think of, and 
the one last to be forgotten, is the necessity of cleanli- 
ness. Microbes in countless numbers are present in 



96 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

the air, and upon everythinc;' we tonch or handle. Many 
of these microbes will destroy the vitality of sper- 
matozoa. The first thing the operator needs in prep- 
aration for this work is the proper clothing. The cloth- 
ing for this work is both simple and inexpensive. All 
he will need out of the ordinary is to have the sleeves 
removed from his undershirts and to buy two white 
painter's suits, consisting of jacket and overalls. If 
the operator is right handed, have the right sleeve re- 
moved from the jackets. If left handed, the left sleeve 
may be removed. These suits should be worn only 
at the breeding hour, and should be kept scrupulously 
clean at all times. This can be done by frequently 
sending them to the laundry. When the breeding 
hour arrives, he should have removed his outer shirt, 
and be dressed in one of his Avhite suits. 

90. Examination of Mares. The mares should be 
examined as they arrive to learn if they are in breed- 
ing condition. The first thing as already recorded in 
this chapter, which is likely to have an influence in 
this matter is her age. If she is 15 years or more of 
age, and has no foal at foot, it will be well to send 
her home without service, unless it is mere activity 
you are looking for. So small a per cent of such mares 
produce foals, one can not afford to breed them unless 
the service fee is paid in advance. The next thing to 
take notice of is evidence of any discharge from the 
vulva. One can usually find evidence of this upon the 
under side of the tail, by the hairs ])eing stuck together. 
Such mares have leueorrhea, and should not be bred 
but sent to the veterinarian instead. Then look for 
evidence of congestion of the mucous membranes, or 



THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BRI'^EDING 97 

a catarrhal condition of the system. This can nsually 
be told by the condition of the nmcous membranes of 
the eyes. If they are inflamed, that is highly colored, 
the mare is not likely to l)reed. The normal color of 
the mucous membranes of the horse is a very pale 
rose color, or pale pink. If the color is red, congestion 
or inflammation is always present. This congestion 
may be of a temporary nature ; the result of a cold, 
shipping, fast driving or any one of many things. In 
such cases, it may soon pass away, but for all that, 
very few mares will breed while in such a conditioD 
It is always well to have such mares wait awhile, to 
see if they will not be later in a better condition. 
Mares three and four years of age always show some 
congestion present because of trouble with their teeth, 
but we have already learned that they do not produce 
very many foals. If mares of such ages do not show 
too much congestion I always breed them, as it is a 
help to the mare to have her in foal. If mares twelve 
years or more of age do not look right I always send 
them away. If mares are discharging at the nostrils, 
I would not breed them. Only about 12 per cent of 
such mares regardless of age produce foals. One can 
not atford to breed them. 

91, Sexual Examination. When all mares have 
been examined and this need take but a very few 
minutes for 10 or a dozen mares, have those found 
in condition be put in readiness for the service. This 
consists in placing them in the best possible position 
as regards security, yet never separating them from 
their mates, even though the mate is a gelding. When 
this is done they are ready for sexual examination, 



98 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

which consists in an examination of the cervix for 
contractions, malpositions and lacerations. If the cer- 
vix is found contracted or closed, open with the fore- 
finger carefully and gently until a capsule can be 
inserted. If the finger can be inserted it will read- 
ily take in a capsule. Do not make the mistake of 
opening the cervix to take in two or more fingers. 
The hardest condition to overcome in breeding is the 
large open uterus. If one finger can be inserted, that 
is sufficient. Regarding any malposition, one has only 
to make it so a capsule can be inserted when such 
mares breed as readily as any. If closed open to ad- 
mit one finger, otherwise do not interfere with its 
condition. Lacerations need the attention of a vet- 
erinarian. I have known those in a very bad condi- 
tion to be repaired, and the mares made breeders. 
Regarding lacerations the one thing to always bear in 
mind is the condition a uterus must be in to seal 
itself so as to retain the fetus. If it be so lacerated 
that the cervix can not contract and close or seal 
itself tightly, the mare is out of commission as a 
breeder. Lastly, we have the large, open or lax cervix, 
which almost every stallion owner has had every kind 
of trouble with. When we understand the cause of 
this trouble, the remedy suggests itself. This is a 
condition induced, first, because of the muscles run- 
ning around the cervix, whose function it is to contract 
and expand or open the cervix, having become par- 
tially paralyzed or impaired to such an extent that they 
can not close it. An impaired or debilitated condition 
of the vital functions of the mare is usually present 
in such eases. One should in such cases give the mare 



THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BREEDING 99 

rest, and good, easily digested foods. In connection 
with this, inject into vagina, each other day a quart of 
warm water (body temperature) into which has been 
dissolved one-half teaspoonful of sulphate of zinc. Do 
this for ten days, then let her go a week without the 
injections. Repeat this work until the cervix closes, 
when she will be in readiness for breeding. This leads 
up to the tools for a capsule service. 

92. The Tools For Capsule Service. The tools for 
capsule service consist of a pan of warm water, 
some arrangement for heating the same, thermometer, 
quart bowl, a good quality of soap, towels, creoline or 
other disinfectant, powdered slippery-elm bark and 
semen extractor. The pan should be made of galvan- 
ized iron or zinc. These metals will neither rust nor 
corrode. It should be four inches deep, six inches 
wide and 36 inches long. This will take in the ex- 
tractor when the piston rod is drawn out full length. 
For heating the water any device may be used, that 
is safe and capable of heating water quickly. I 
use a two-hole Perfection oil stove. Gasoline is un- 
safe about a barn. If the heater is to be used for 
breeding only, a one-hole stove is large enough, which 
with a two gallon tea kettle will supply one with all 
the hot water needed. The best thermometer for reg- 
istering the temperature of your water, is a floating 
thermometer, used by butter and cheese makers. Any 
thermometer of ordinary use will do, however, and 
these can be had as low as fifteen cents. The quart 
bowl is to be used to catch the semen in case of with- 
drawal. No particular kind of soap is necessary, yet 
the quality should be good. Soap has to be used so 



100 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

often during the breeding season that unless the qual- 
ity is good, the skin of the arm is likely to be in- 
jured by its use. Towels should be supplied liberally, 
and they must be kept clean, else they become the 
breeding place for myriads of microbes, which should 
always be avoided. Disinfectants must be used, and 
creoline or other coal-tar preparations are as good as 
any and the cheapest by far. Before making exam- 
inations of mares disinfect the arm thoroughly, then 
wash it off with freshly sterilized water immediately 
before inserting into the mare. No disinfectant must 
be carried into a mare which is to be bred very soon, 
as this would destroy the life of spermatozoa as well 
as other forms of life. The need of disinfecting the 
hand and arm before examining or breeding mares by 
capsule method, is to prevent germs being carried into 
the mare. Powdered slippery elm bark is to be used 
as a lubricant. The best way I have found to use it is 
to keep some in a large pepper box such as cooks use 
about the kitchen range. By dipping the arm in water, 
then dusting a little of the powder upon the wet arm 
one has the best lubricant known. The extractor is 
one patented by myself. I am not recommending it be- 
cause of that fact for the patent I sold outright and 
have no interest left in it, either direct or indirect. I 
recommend it only because it is the only instrument 
ever invented capable of extracting the semen from 
the uterus of the mare. This instrument is known as the 
Carlson Semen Extractor, and is shown in figure 36. 
When it is known that 60 per cent of all services made 
with stallions result in the semen being ejaculated or 
discharged directly into the uterus, shows one the 



THE CAP.SULE METHOD OF BREEDING 101 

necessity of having something that will extract the 
semen from the uterus, if we are to do very much in 
the way of capsule breeding. The secret of this ex- 
tractor's success lies in its soft metallic point, which 
is bent downward after being inserted thus enabling 
it to reach and take up the semen as no other instru- 
ment can. 

93, Sterilization of Tools a Necessity. The steriliza- 
tion of all these tools by the use of boiling water is 
the next step in our work. Throw away all tools con- 
taining rubber, or other material which will not stand 
boiling water. One will get very few foals by using 
such tools. Take every precaution in thoroughly ster- 
ilizing the extractor. When this has been done and you 
have selected the best mare from among those exam- 
ined with which to make the natural service, you are 
ready to begin the real work of breeding by the cap- 
sule method. jMention has already been made that the 
best mare for the natural service has reference to 
size, temperament and health. If possible, she should 
be some taller than the stallion. The best services are 
always secured by using mares slightly taller than the 
stallion. In temperament she should be quiet and 
level headed. Physically and sexually she should be in 
the best of health. Take no possible chance of spread- 
ing infection by using a mare of doubtful character as 
regards disease. When the best mare has been selected, 
place her in the breeding chute shown in figure 37, 
and have her securely tied. This chute is not a neces- 
sity, but a great convenience. If she is to be bred 
without the chute do not trust to some one holding 
her, but always have her securely tied. Many services 



102 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

have given only disappointment because of relying up- 
on some one who was to hold the mare but did not. 
When the mare has been securely tied have the groom 
lead out the stallion. While he is doing this the oper- 
ator should take the extractor filled with warm water 
in his left hand and the bowl filled with warm water 
in his right, taking a position at the side of the mare's 
left quarter as soon as the stallion has mounted and 
made a connection. When the stallion is about to dis- 
mount, empty the bowl and be prepared to catch any 
semen that may be withdrawn. If no semen is with- 
drawn throw down the bowl, empty the extractor of 
its water, and as soon as the stallion is well out of 
the way, catch the point with the thumb and first two 
fingers of the right hand and insert in vagina. Be- 
fore leaving the operating room the arm should first 
be lubricated with the slippery elm bark. If the se- 
men was deposited in the vagina it can be withdrawn 
into the extractor when the operator with forefinger 
over the end of the point of the extractor, should at 
once start for the operating room, placing the extractor 
in the pan in which has been prepared the warm water 
at a temperature of 100 degrees F. Early in the season 
when the weather is cold, the water can be prepared 
at 101 degrees, as it will cool the one degree by the 
time you wish to use it. If no semen is found in the 
vagina insert the point of the extractor into the neck 
of the uterus, preceded by the end of the forefinger 
at all times, as shown in figure 38. Insert as far as 
can be reached with the finger, then press downward, 
bending the point with the forefinger over the top, and 
the thumb under the bottom. Pressing down firmly 



THE CAPSULE METHOD OF BREEDING 103 

but gently will cause a dei3ression to form in the bottom 
of tlie uterus which it will cause the semen by its own 
gravity to occupy. With the point still held under the 
end of the forefinger, as shown in figure 38, so as not 
to draw in any part of the delicate membrane lining 
the uterus, begin to fill the cylinder of the extractor 
by drawing out on the piston rod with the left hand. 
When the cjdinder is filled straighten the point be- 
fore drawing out of the mare and start for the oper- 
ating room as before directed. Have your }ielper or 
assistant handle the extractor, which is to be kept un- 
der water except when filling capsules. The finger 
should always be kept over the opening of the point to 
exclude both air and water, when not filling a capsule. 
With a capsule in the left hand, which the operator 
should always keep dry, the assistant may fill not to 
exceed half full, when it may be capped and at once 
inserted into the uterus of a mare to be bred. The 
capped end should always be inserted first. Have the 
owner of the mare hold up the left foot of his mare 
while the capsule is being inserted. This will avoid 
a possible kick. This operation can be repeated until 
all the mares are bred. 

94. An Operating Room can be made of an office 
room or stall. Have as little light as possible, and 
still be able to see. Have the operating room or stall 
kept in a cleanly condition. In handling the capsules 
after they are filled, so handle them as to exclude all 
the light possible. If mares are returned for service 
more frequently than should be the case, and the stal- 
lion is known to be in a vigorous condition, learn the 
cause. Something will be found wrong. When the 



104 STUDIES IN HORSE liREEDING 

trouble is discovered it can easily be avoided in the 
future. If the stallion is right, and the mares are right, 
it is easy for the operator to be right. The early part 
of the season always gives poorest results. This is be- 
cause every condition is against one at that time. The 
stallion is less virile, the mares are not in as good 
condition, and the weather is somewhat against one 
at that time. 

95. Capsules. The capsules can be ordered through 
any druggist. There is but one capsule made intended 
for this work. They were first manufactured by the 
Park-Davis Company of Detroit, Michigan, and are 
known as No. 11. They are wholesale manufacturing 
druggists and sell their products to druggists only. 
These capsules should be kept in a clean place, the 
more sunlight in the room the better. If kept very 
long it is well to place them in a hot oven for two or 
three minutes occasionally. This will destroy any bac- 
teria that may gather upon them. Remember if mares 
are bred while in heat, they should be returned for 
trial in 21 days. If bred when not in heat they should 
not be returned until 30 days after service. In both 
eases they should be retried weekly for three weeks 
if not in heat when first returned. 

96. First Use of Capsule. When I produced my first 
capsule foal in 1881, I did more for the horse breeding 
industry than I knew at that time. By making one 
good stallion do the work of several poor ones, it is 
doing more to improve the horses of the country than 
any other one agency. Figure 39 is that of a foal pro- 
duced with a capsule. 



THE CAPStlLE METHOn OF r.REEDIXG 105 

97. Excitement To Be Avoided. In case of bad 
tempered or kicking mares, there is no way so quick 
and easy in handling them as strapping up the fore- 
foot with a strap. When a strap of this kind is prop- 
erly adjusted, it holds itself in place. Great care 
should be exercised in exciting mares as little as pos- 
sible. Mares excited at time of breeding rarely con- 
ceive. This statement is based upon very extended 
experiments upon that one condition. Only seven mares 
produced foals out of 203 wild Mexican mares bred by 
the capsule method. These mares were roped and 
thrown in order to make breeding them possible. In 
another experiment, conducted solely for the sake of 
the experiment, 117 domestic draft-bred mares were put 
in casting harness and lowered to the ground, then bred 
with a capsule and let up. These were handled very 
gently, yet only nine of them conceived. Later the 
108 remaining were bred by the capsule method in a 
standing position, semen from the same stallion being 
used, and 89 of them conceived. In both ways of 
breeding these draft mares, two spayed mares were 
used for all natural services. This should teach us 
that one should be very careful about exciting mares 
that are to be bred. It also teaches us why the rough, 
excitable owner of mares produces so few foals. 

A chute can be used in which to breed wild mares 
by the capsule method, and from which good results 
may be obtained. Many wild mares are now bred 
every year in this manner throughout many parts of 
the Southwest and also in Mexico. In this way wild 
mares can be bred without placing a strap upon them. 



106 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

A twitch upon the upper lip of domestic mares has a 
very quieting influence upon the most of them. 



CHAPTER VII. 



PREGNANCY. OR GESTATION. 

98. Evidence of Pregnancy. As soon as a mare has 
been bred her owner is desirous of knowing if she is 
pregnant. The owner of a pregnant mare gains noth- 
ing by a knowledge of her pregnancy, except that he 
may save the mare any medication likely to induce 
abortion, as well as unnecessary and dangerous work. 

The cessation and nonrecurrence of the heat periods, 
are the most significant signs of conception, yet these 
are not infallible signs, as mares very frequently ac- 
cept a second and third service, though pregnant. 
Some mares will mate with the stallion during the en- 
tire period of pregnancy, while others without any 
apparent cause persistently refuse the stallion when 
not pregnant. The desire for the stallion in pregnant 
mares is most likely to take place in hot weather. 
Generally speaking if the mare refuses the stallion 
for 30 days after service, she is most likely pregnant. 
After all is said there is no infallible rule by which 
one may know a pregnant condition. 

If a mare naturally vicious and excitable becomes 
gentle and docile, shortly after service, one may reason- 
ably suspect a pregnant condition, since the generative 



108 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

instinct causing the excitement has been satisfied. So 
also, an increase of flesh, a loss of energy, or indis- 
position for work, when preceded by service usually 
imply conception. 

The most reliable indication of which I know is the 
color of the membranes of vulva and vagina. Normally 
these are a pale rose or pink color, but soon after con- 
ception they gradually become darker, until at the 
third month one finds them of a bluish-red color. 

When the gestation period has half passed, that is 
after five and a half months, motion of the fetus may 
be observed. From the seventh month until the end 
of gestation, motion can always be felt by pressing the 
hand well into the abdomen in front of the stifle, then 
removing the hand quickly. The sudden push dis- 
places the foal toward the opposite side of the uterus, 
and as it floats back its body may be felt against the 
hand. Internal examinations are to be condemned. 

99. Duration of Pregnancy. A mare usually carries 
the fetus about 16 heat periods, or 336 days. In all 
normal mares, parturition will occur at a regular heat 
period date. The uterus has been in the habit of di- 
lating at these periods and even though 15 periods 
have passed it will again dilate at its regular time. 
It is only in eases of some abnormal condition that 
we find mares carrying the fetus beyond these heat 
period dates. If not quite ready for parturition at 
one of these periods, the mare will carry the fetus 
three weeks longer. The period of gestation is not 
from date of service, but from date of conception. A 
gestation table of 9.137 mares producing live foals, 
over which I had control and in which there can be no 



PREGNANCY OB GESTATION 109 

possible mistake, gives an average of 3361/2 days for the 
colts and 337% days for the fillies. The shortest time 
was 297 days (a strong vigorous foal resulting), and 
the longest time was 391 days. The foal carried but 
297 days was that of a young mare four years of age. 
She had produced one foal, and was bred seven days 
later, resulting in this foal which was a colt. The 
one carried 391 days was the foal of a five year old 
mare, never before bred, and it was a filly. 

100. Care of Pregnant Mare. The pregnant mare 
should be given the best care the farm can afford. This 
does not mean a foolish, pampered care, but handling 
in an intelligent manner. She should not be handled 
so as to excite her in any way, nor be exposed to the 
annoyance of a stallion or mean gelding. She should 
not be overworked, or made to do work which might 
result in slipping or straining, such as working in deep 
mud or snow, or backing loads. Exercise is not only 
beneficial but absolutely necessary for the good of both 
mare and offspring. Moderate work in the harness is 
all right if care be exercised in keeping the mare nor- 
mal at all times. She should never be worked in hot 
weather, for an elevated temperature may injure both 
mare and fetus. The summer of 1910 because of being 
hot was remarkable for the number of early abortions 
reported from all parts of the ITnited States. 

101. Food of the Pregnant Mare. In feeding a 
pregnant mare it is well to remember that the mare 
must eat, digest and assimilate for two. Her food 
should be abundant, and nutritious, but not fattening. 
Corn should be avoided at all times. Oats, wheat bran, 
well cured hay free from dust and fungi, and other 



110 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

foods rich in bone and muscle forming elements are 
to be recommended. Alfalfa and clover are excellent 
foods for a pregnant mare. The bowels should be kept 
in a good condition, and constipation avoided. Water 
should be given often, and in the winter ice water 
should be avoided lest abortion be the result. 

102. Pre-natal Impressions. All the surroundings 
should be made agreeable to the pregnant mare. Both 
sentiment and business demand this. The brood mare, 
if wisely managed, will make the owner more money 
than anything else on the farm. Her stall should be 
large and wide, so as to give her ample room in lying 
down and getting up. The floor of the stall should be 
nearly level. If it slopes too much from the front 
backward it will throw the weight of the fetus back 
on the pelvis, endangering protrusions and even abor- 
tion. Violent mental impressions are to be avoided. 
Many men will say that pre-natal impressions are 
impossible with the mare, but I know they are possible. 
Hundreds of such cases can be cited all over this land. 
It is only excitable or nervous mares that are likely 
to be affected, but we cannot afford to take chances. 
It is wise to banish all animals of peculiar tints or 
colors, and those showing deformities. Painful affec- 
tions of the pregnant mare are likely to be impressed 
upon the same organs of the offspring. 

103. Extra-uterine Gestation. Occasionally a fetus 
is developed elsewhere than in the uterus. Spermatozoa 
may make their way through the uterus and fallopian 
tubes, falling forward into the abdominal cavity. 
Should an egg from the ovaries fail to be gathered up 
bj'' the fimbria and passed backward through the fal- 



PREGNANCY OR GESTATION 111 

lopian tubes, it is likely, also, to fall forward into the 
abdominal cavity, when fertilization is just as likely 
to take place there as any where else. In such an 
event we have abdominal or extra-uterine pregnancy. 
In such cases the embryo is likely to attach itself to the 
serous membranes, and receive the needful nutriment 
as is usual Avlien located in the uterus. In three such 
cases falling under my observation, two of them were 
firmly attached, while in the case of the other there 
was no attachment whatever. 

In abdominal pregnancy the fetus may be carried to 
maturity, or it may die, the soft parts of the fetus be- 
ing absorbed, while the bones may be carried for years. 
In some cases the pressure will form a fistulous open- 
ing through the walls of the abdomen, or even through 
the vagina or rectum. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



PARTURITION. 

104. The Approach of Parturition. There is no cer- 
tain rule by which one may foretell the time a mare will 
deliver her foal. In most cases this will be known by 
the enlargement of the vulva, the falling in of the mus- 
cles about the croup (relaxation), and the filling of the 
udder and teats. A day or two before parturition the 
teats show a waxy substance at their ends, and frequent- 
ly there is a flow of milk. At the last the mare usually 
becomes uneasy, stops feeding, and sometimes she will 
lie down and rise again for several times. In many 
mares this is not repeated, but the mare remains down. 

But one should not trust too much to either time or 
appearance. As soon as there is a possible chance for 
the arrival of a foal, the mare should be placed by her- 
self as already noted. 

105. Parturition Without Previous Symptoms. Some 
times there wnll be no sign or act upon the part of the 
mare of what is to happen, when all at once she will 
lie down and begin to labor. In the breeding of horses 
no time ever presents itself when the presence of a 
man with good nerve and a level head is so much in 
need as this. No domestic animal labors so strenuously 



PARTURITIOX 



113 



during- parturition as the mare. If conditions are nor- 
mal a few minutes lal)()r and all is over. 

106. Natural Presentation. If one is present at the 
time of parturition, after two or three pains the water 
bags appear and usually burst, followed by the fore 
feet of the foal, with the nose between the knees. With 
such a presentation one can help the mare very much 
by taking a foot in either hand and pulling as she la- 




Figure 40. The correct anterior presentation. 



bors. If your labor is in concert with hers, you can do 
no harm by pulling; with all your might. By this help 
one can relieve a mare of her foal quickly, thereby sav- 
ing her much wasted energy. At such times one should 
work with clean hands to avoid infection. 

When there is a twin birth the second foal usually 
comes with its hind feet first. If the tail is turned 
upward toward the tail of the mare, this presentation 
will be expelled as easily as an anterior one, since the 



114 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

curvature of the body corresponds to the curvature of 
the genital passages of the mare. In an anterior pres- 
entation the face and ears of the foals should always be 
turned upwards for a like reason. 

107. Obstructions. There may be any one of several 
obstructions to prevent the passage of the fetus through 
the pelvis and other passages. If the labor of a mare 
continues for any considerable time with no presenta- 




Figure 41. The correct posterior presentation. 

tion, one will usually find something wrong. Occasion- 
ally there will be found a mal-presentation from the 
first, or there may be some obstruction which prevents 
the expulsion of the foal. This obstruction may be a 
small narrow pelvis, perhaps the result of a fracture. 
Tumors in the vagina or elsewhere in the pelvis some- 
times prevent natural parturition, as does calculus 
(stone) in the bladder, or impaction of the rectum with 



PARTURITION 115 

feces. Sometimes as a result of inflammation the fetus 
and its membranes become firmly attached to the ut- 
erus. In such eases the adhesions will have to be 
reached and broken down before the foal can be ex- 
tracted. 

108. Difficult Presentations. The more common dif- 
ficulties of parturition will l)e found those of mal-pres- 
entation, or more commonly speaking difficult presenta- 




Figure 42. Anterior presentation with head turned back. 

tions. These are many, but in most of them both mare 
and foal can be saved. Sometimes one foot only is 
present, when the other will be turned back. At other 
times both fore feet will be presented, but the head 
and neck are turned back. Either of these two pres- 
entations will cause the loss of the mare unless she has 
help. In one instance I saw all four of the feet pre- 
sented at once, and yet the foal was extracted alive. 



116 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

Whatever the nature of a wrong presentation the mare 
will need help and at once. In all such cases a veteri- 
narian should be called as early as possible. Delays in 
matters of this kind are mighty costly affairs, as not 
only the foal is to be lost, but the mare as well. 

If a veterinarian can not be had, one should by all 
means try and do something himself. Any man with 




Figure 43. Posterior presentation with hind legs bent 
under. 

strength and pluck and some knowledge of the genital 
organs of the mare can do much if he only will. The 
first necessity is to know the foal is in such a position 
that it can be expelled. Sometimes when the presenta- 
tion appears normal and yet the mare is unable to ex- 
pel the foal it will be found that one or both of the 
hind feet are bent under itself and so far forward as 
to bend the posterior half into a loop or double. This 



PARTI'HITION 



117 



position caused the hind feet to catch at the pelvis, 
makina: it impossible to pass through. Such a position 
is easily corrected. By pushing' the foal back the hind 
legs and quarters are easily straightened. The most 
difficult presentations I have ever known, are those 
when the head is turned back, and the double presen- 
tation, the back coming first. In the latter it matters 
not which end you get first. The difficulty is in getting 




Figure 44. Doubled anterior presentation, all four feet 
appearing at once. 



it turned. In many cases after the mares had become 
qtiite helpless, I have used block and tackle to raise 
them behind, so that the foal by its own gravity will 
drop forward and downward, thereby helping greatly 
in turning it. 

Whatever the nature of the difficulty one should 
never give up so long as there is life in the mare. As 
a spur to greater efforts one should always bear in 



118 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

mind that unless the foal is expelled, the mare is lost. 
109. Feeding After Parturition. A mare should be 
fed grain very sparingly just before and after partu- 
rition. Excessive grain feeding at this time is likely 
to result in the foal having trouble with its digestion. 
The digestive organs of a new born foal are extremely 
delicate, and easily deranged by injudicious feeding of 
the mare. If the season is early and the weather chilly, 
be careful and not let the mare have much cold water. 




Figure 45. Anterior presentation, with fore feet bent under. 

Cold water in very large quantities during the four or 
five days following parturition may cause very serious 
trouble. It is much safer to give the mare warm water 
at this time for several days. If the mare foals during 
warm weather she may be trusted to drink as she has 
been accustomed to do. If the weather is warm and the 
grass good she will do better upon the grass than any 
other feed. If the mare is of draft breeding, she will 
need grain with the grass after the foal is a week old. 



PARTURITION 



119 



None of the grasses in the corn belt contain enough 
nutriment to grow a good draft horse without grain. 
No grain will equal good, clean, heavy oats. 

110. Flooding. Occasionally the uterus fails to con- 
tract on itself after parturition and flooding or bleed- 
ing is the result. About all that can be done in such 
cases is to relieve the uterus of blood clots, when a 
strong solution of alum should be injected into that 




I'igure 46. Anterior presentation with head turned on side. 



organ. Cold water may be applied to the back just 
over the uterus. 

111. Eversion of the Uterus. After a difficult partu- 
rition the uterus occasionally fails to contract when the 
fundus will pass into and through the body of the ut- 
erus, and through the vagina, until the inverted uterus 
appears externally. This can be returned by having 
the mare assume a standing position, when the surface 



120 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

of the protruding organs should be washed clean of all 
filth, then take a piece of muslin four or five inches 
wide and begin winding at the most dependent part, 
and wind toward the body of the mare. The next step 
consists of manipulating and pushing in those parts 
nearest the vulva. Once a portion has been returned 
into the vagina the rest will follow without much diffi- 
culty. When back in place the hand should be inserted 
and extended to every part of the organ, to insure that 
no portion remains inverted within another portion. 
The mare should be kept from all efforts at straining. 
This done a truss can be so arranged as to act as a bar- 
rier to any further escape of the uterus through the vul- 
va. Cleanliness must be observed in work of this kind. 



CHAPTER IX. 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLION. 

112. Masculinity. It is impossible to produce the 
highest class of horses in any breed without the aid of 
high class mares. Yet the average quality of the horses 
in the country can only be advanced by the use of qual- 
ity stallions. What a stallion will do for the commun- 
ity in which he is owned, will depend more upon his 
head and temperament than all else. No horse has ever 
proved himself a great sire, if not a stallion of most pro- 
nounced masculinity. This will be determined by the 
crest, the massive jaw, the voice, the hard and fixed ex- 
pression of the eye, the muscular development of the 
jaw, neck and shoulder, and by his action and every 
movement. Life must be begun in power. To be com- 
plete, it must be begotten with that immense energy 
sufficient to impart the greatest possible momentum to 
all its functions. To achieve all this requires potential 
virility. The stallion must start off all the bodily or- 
gans and functions of the future foal. This potential 
force must be powerful in the stallion, that the organ- 
ism may be vigorous in his foals. A stallion with small 
or weakly masculinity will sire many foals of low vi- 
tality, even though mated with strong vigorous mares. 



122 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

The mares may supply plenty of organic material for 
the nourishment of the fetus, but it may have too little 
life force to appropriate it. An enfeebled mare may 
produce a strong vigorous foal, if sired by a stallion of 
strong masculinity. In this case the mare will still 
further enfeeble herself to nourish the fetus. The more 
a stallion is such mentally, the more he will be one phy- 
sically and sexually. The male body is created by the 
male mentality. When speaking of the mind or men- 
tality of the horse, I wish to be understood as including 
the entire nervous organization of the horse. 

113. Nature's Laws of Sex Attraction. Nature does 
nothing without a well defined purpose. The stallion's 
peculiar voice is given him that it might attract 
mares to him. Any mare will readily recognize the 
voice of a stallion from that of any other horse, as far 
as she can hear it. The same is true of the odor pe- 
culiar to the sexes. The massive jaw and extra muscles 
of neck and shoulder are given the stallion as weapons 
of both offense and defense and to aid him in fighting 
battles necessary for the defense of his herd. The hard 
and fixed expression of the eye is but the outward ex- 
pression of a being so full of masculine power that it 
must find expression in every look, in every action, in 
his entire being. He is the most perfect stallion who is 
the best equipped, best adapted to fulfill the office for 
which he was created. All masculine endowments must 
be stamped upon the offspring at the time of concep- 
tion; while female influences are continued through a 
period of eleven months. Therefore, for the time be- 
ing the powers of the stallion should be far the greatest 
since each endows about equally. 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLION 



123 




124 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

114. Masculinity a Breed Characteristic. Mascu- 
linity is much more pronounced in some breeds than 
in others. Among the draft breeds the Belgian 
stallion is most masculine of them all. The Shire 
stallion is usually found possessing masculinity in a 
low degree. His small jaw and feminine neck give 
him the outward appearance of a gelding. Many 
stallions of this breed are wanting in masculinity to a 
marked degree. It is a well-known fact among intelli- 
gent breeders that the Shire stallion is a source of 
more trouble as a breeder than the stallions of any 
other breed. Some individuals of this great breed are 
as virile as any I have ever known, yet the fact re- 
mains that many among them are inclined to be 
slightly sterile. I have been keeping records and com- 
piling statistics obtained from others for many years, 
and state with much confidence that one can detect the 
"shy" breeders from any herd of stallions. 

115. Stallions that are Unprofitable. For the pur- 
pose of this chapter I shall assume the reader does not 
own a stallion at this time, but has decided to purchase 
one. Let me inform you before you make your pur- 
chase that of all the stallions sold in this country, not 
more than one of every 10 has ever paid as a com- 
mercial proposition. After the expense of his keep and 
handling has been paid, I doubt very much if one of 
every 10 has earned enough in collections to pay for 
his first cost. There are two primary causes for this 
being true. First, the stallion was sold for more than 
he was worth. Few stallions have ever been sold in 
this country at their true value. Any other than a 
high class, well bred and strictly sound stallion has 



THK SELECTION OF A STALLION 



125 



no value whatever. The number of scrubs, as well as 
unsound and undersized pure bred stallions that have 
been peddled and sold in this country is appalling. 
There is no one to blame for this condition of affairs 
but the buyer himself. Just as long as such hot air ad- 
vertising as "Ten acre barns, full to the roof of all ton 




Figure 48. A great draft colt two years old, weighing 
1905 pounds at 24 months. Very few colts have ever been pro- 
duced which can equal him in bone, size, muscle and quality. 



horses," is more attractive to the buyer than the plain 
honest statement of a reputable breeder or dealer, just 
so long will the buyer be complaining of buying a gold 
brick. Just so long as the buyer goes out to buy some- 
thing cheap, just so long will he pay something for 
nothing. 



126 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

Secondly, another reason why so few stallions pay is 
because of poor handling. Scarcely one man in 20 now 
handling stallions is capable of doing so intelligently. 
It is really surprising how many unintelligent, super- 
stitious, double-cover, look-over-the-left-shulder, dark- 
of-the-moon, first-heat-filly-foal men there are in the 
country handling stallions. I have known men who 
have handled stallions for more than 20 years to state 
that it required all the semen of one discharge to im- 
pregnate a mare. I believe there are more misfits in the 
stallion and jack business, than any other business in 
the world. 

116. The Purchase of a Stallion. If you are ready 
to purchase a stallion, no place you can go is likely to 
prove so profitable to you as to some reputable breeder, 
where not only the sire, but dam, and frequently the 
second and third dams can be seen. If the stallion is 
a good one and of a desirable type, and you find his 
sire and dam of a type equally good, you know to a 
reasonable certainty Avhat his offspring will be. If it is 
impossible to buy of a breeder, then buy of a reputable 
dealer. Be fully decided as to what you want before 
you leave your home, and do not buy until you have 
found such a horse. You will find it well to do the 
buying yourself, rather than let the seller do it for 
you. If the horse shown you is of the breed and type 
you desire, look him over carefully as to his sound- 
ness. First see if his age, color and marks correspond 
with his certificate. If they do not, pay no attention 
to excuses or explanations, but leave him alone. Be 
mighty careful about his eyes. Defective vision is 
transmitted with great certainty. Be sure there is no 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLION 127 

blneness about them. A good, clear, prominent and 
expressive eye is essential to a good breeder. A hazel 
eye is always a good eye. If he is three years or more 
of age, note whether or not he has that hard or fixed 
expression already mentioned under masculinity (112). 
He should also have a well developed or masculine 
jaw, the same wide apart underneath, with a clean, 
neat throat. Full meaty throats are likely to become 
thick in the wind. His ears should be carried erect. 
His crest should be well developed with neck of fairly 
good length. Few draft horses have ever had too long 
a neck. His neck should be well set upon nicely slop- 
ing shoulders. You are supposed to be buying a sire 
for producing high-priced commercial horses. High 
priced geldings are never seen with short necks nor 
with straight shoulders. Viewed from in front, he 
should be wide, carrying his width all the way back, 
and well muscled upon shoulder, arm and forearm. 
His legs should be set well under him, and only medium 
in length. If his legs are set too wide apart, he is sure 
to roll when in motion which causes more resistance, 
thereby resulting in added friction to all his move- 
ments. The knee should be wide, carrying its width 
well down below. Such knees are rarely seen with 
splints below them. If you are after a true drafter, he 
should measure not less than 10 inches below the knee 
and 12 inches below the hock. If he measures 12 inches 
below the knee and 14 inches below the hock, so much 
the better if the bone is of good quality. Quality of 
bone is as essential as quantity, yet one never finds too 
much good bone under a draft horse. Viewed from 
the side, all legs should stand perpendicular to the 



128 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

body. The pastern should stand at an angle of 45 
degrees. The utility of the pastern is to dissipate con- 
cussion. A straight pastern and a straight shoulder 
are generally found together. Such a conformation is 
the cause of most sidebones, ringbones, navicular 
troubles and shoulder lameness (283). Too much im- 
portance can not be attached to a correct pastern (283). 
If too straight in a young horse, it will only become 
more so with age, resulting in knuckling. Good feet 
are a valuable asset to any horse. This is more espe- 
cially true of the forefeet, as about 60 per cent of the 
weight of a horse is borne upon his forefeet. A wide 
hoofhead is very important, together with wide heels. 
Wide heels are usually associated with large, elastic 
frogs, to act as a cushion in dissipating concussion, 
which the pastern continues. 

117. Conformation of Body. Going back to the 
body, the length of back from shoulder blade (scapula) 
to point of hip, should never exceed in length, the 
length of that part of the quarter measured from the 
point of the hip to point of the buttock. If depth of 
shoulder and length of quarter each exceed the length 
of the back, we have a near approach to the principle 
of the arch, the strongest self supporting figure known 
to the science of mechanics. A long back is quite a 
common defect in many draft horses. The body should 
be round, with ribs well sprung and extending well 
downward. This will give you a horse of good lung 
capacity as well as a good feeder and doer. The horse 
cut up in the flank is a poor feeder, always recovering 
slowly from extra exertion in the way of hard work or 
long shipping. The loin should be wide and well mus- 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLION 129 

cled. The croup should be long, straight and well 
muscled. There is a wide difference in the draft breeds 
in regard to the croup. Some of the breeds as a whole 
are very straight in the croup, while others appear very 
steep in the hind quarter. A long straight croup adds 
much to the appearance of the horse. So far as 
strength is concerned, it matters not so much about the 
angle as does the extent to which the croup is covered 
with muscle. 

118. Hind Quarters and Hocks. The thigh and 
quarter should be heavy, this region of the horse being 
composed principally of muscles. A draft horse should 
be heavily muscled throughout the hind quarters, for 
it is the hind quarters that furnish most of the power 
in drawing heavy loads (275). The hocks should be 
given more attention than any other part of the horse. 
More draft horses go wrong because of defective hocks 
than all other defects combined (280). No hock can 
be too good or too strong. Viewed from both in front 
and at the side, the hock should appear broad, yet 
clean cut and free from fullness. In front of the hock 
and slightly to the inside, look closely for a spavin. 
Never buy a stallion with a spavin, even though a small 
sum will buy him, unless you wish to start a breed of 
spavined horses. I know of one stallion in South Da- 
kota having a spavin upon his right hock, and 17 of his 
foals, the get of a single year, developed spavins upon 
the same leg before they reached their first year. The 
hock should be kept sharp in all its features and angles, 
as such a hock shows more quality, both in bone and 
the tendons attached to it. 

119. Quality. The hair upon the legs should always 



130 STX'DIES IX HORSE BREEDIXG 

be fine, and as short as the breed character will permit. 
Nothing indicates quality in a horse so much as the 
fineness of the hair. Fine, soft hair is associated with 
fine, soft skin, and all such animals will be found pos- 
sessing bone and tendons of a high quality. In addi- 
tion to this, a horse possessing quality in a high degree 
will not only have more strength, but much greater en- 
durance as well. 

120. The Generative Organs. Examine the genera- 
tive organs of the stallion you are about to purchase. 
The testicles should be well developed, and even in size. 
Stallions with one testicle, sire many ridgling foals. 
Never buy or use a stallion with only one testicle. The 
smaller, or rather shorter, the penis, the surer he will 
prove as a foal getter. This is because of his being 
able to make more complete services, by depositing the 
semen in the uterus. If you notice bunches of tallow 
deposited about the sheath, let the other fellow have 
him. Even with the tallow bunched upon and around 
the generative organs, he may still be able to produce 
foals all right, but as a producer of high-class foals, his 
vitality has been impaired forever. Tallow deposited 
in any part of the animal, necessarily impairs the vi- 
tality of all nerves and glands in that locality. It will 
take two years of careful and intelligent handling to 
put such a stallion in good breeding condition. Can 
you afford to do this? 

121. The Action of the Stallion. Now have the stal- 
lion put to the walk. This is the only gait of the draft 
horse. Give the strictest attention to his every move- 
ment, viewed from in front, behind and at the side. In 
approaching you, the feet should be lifted clear of the 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLION 131 

ground, then placed down evenly and in line. From 
behind, the legs should be kept well under him, the 
flexion of the hock even and in line, the bottom of the 
feet showing at every step. From the side, the stride 
should appear balanced, quick and elastic. In addition 
to all this, in the well-sexed stallion, there should be 
an indescribable something to his motion and action, 
as though every nerve, muscle, and tendon were made 
of the highest and best tempered steel, ready to spring 
at the slightest volition. If he moves about as though 
partially unconscious of his surroundings and mission 
in life, I would not care to own him. The tendency of 
all stallion salesmen is to show their horse at a trot, 
rarely at the walk. The trot is of little value to the 
draft horse, other than to show soreness or lameness. 
If he walks right, his trot will be all right. 

122. Good Wind Very Important. Not less impor- 
tant than any of the points mentioned, is to know the 
stallion you are buying has good wind. Test him thor- 
oughly in this respect, for w^ithout good lungs, and 
good wind, a stallion has no value (288). Few stallions 
in the past have ever been tested by the buyer for de- 
fective wind, resulting in many a disappointment be- 
cause of this negligence. I know of a stallion in South 
Dakota sold by an Eastern tirm on the company plan, 
for .$4,500. This horse if gelded at that time, would 
have sold for $100 and no more. Unfortunately for 
that community, he proved a sure foal getter, and has 
filled that country full of horses with defective wdnd. 
The damage to the farmers of that county cannot be 
measured in dollars, for it will take fifty years of ju- 
dicious breeding to correct the injury done them, be- 



132 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

sides the first commercial loss of thousands of dollars. 
No defect, no disease of the horse is more likely to be 
transmitted than laryngeal hemiplegia. Beware of the 
windbroken stallion. Put him to a severe test, and if 
the slightest roaring or whistling can be detected, do 
not buy him. 

123. Testing the Stallion's Virility. If the stallion 
has proved all right thus far, and you have been made 
a price which you believe to be reasonable, buy him, 
with the understanding that he is yet to be submitted 
to one more test; that of a breeder. Have this ques- 
tion settled before you pay a dollar upon him. There is 
but one way to settle this point, let the microscope do 
the work. Have him mated with a mare, and test the 
semen yourself. A microscope with a magnification of 
400 or 500 diameters can be had for $30, and it will be 
worth several times that amount every year if you 
continue in the business. No man can intelligently 
handle a stallion or jack Avithout one in these modern 
times. We are now living in the twentieth century, a 
time famous for its high intelligence, its many inven- 
tions, and its many master minds in every field of hu- 
m.an endeavor. Competition in every line of commercial 
activity is mighty keen. If you do not intend to handle 
your stallion in the most intelligent manner known to 
this age, you will do well not to buy one, for your com- 
petitor will most likely handle his horse in a business 
like wa3^ 

124. Guarantee. No guarantee of breeding is worth 
tlie price of the paper upon which it is written. There 
are plenty of breeders and dealers who are honest, and 
who will make good, but when you have handled and 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLIOX 133 

cared for a stallion one or two years with no retnrns, 
who is going to pay you for your actual loss in ex- 
pense money and time? Even though you do get an- 
other stallion in exchange for the one already shown 
to possess no breeding value, your loss is too great to 
take any chances on. Besides this second horse may 
prove no better than the first if taken without being 
tested. There is but one business way to avoid this 
loss and annoyance ; test the horse before you buy 
him. Twenty years from now, no stallion will be sold 
in this country in any other manner. If the stallion 
is a breeder, the semen will disclose the fact, in the 
number, vitality, and activity of the spermatozoa, as 
showai in figure 6. If the spermatozoa appear few" in 
number, or if they show but little mobility, let the horse 
alone. This test can be made in the coldest weather, by 
the use of Avater at a temperature of 101 degrees, and 
doing the work in a warm otfice or other warm room. 

125. Size and Weight. If you are breeding draft 
horses, no stallion you can buy will ever prove too 
large, provided he possesses quality with scale (238). 
I have many times mated small Indian pony mares, 
weighing from 550 to 800 pounds to ton stallions with 
uniformly good results, while if your stallion is coarse 
and unbalanced, his foals will be the same, even though 
mated with large mares. Taken as a whole our draft 
breeds are all too small. The demand for heavy geld- 
ings of quality, such as sell for $300 to $500 each, is 
many times greater than the supply, and always will 
be. The amount of small blood, even in our largest 
stallions and mares, will cause the law of reversion 
working Avith this fact to ahvays give us a preponder- 



134 STUIllES IX HORSE BREEDIXG 

ance of undersized horses, even when we use the largest 
sires obtainable. In speaking of draft horses, there is 
a wide difference between size and weight. The two 
terms have a distinctly different meaning. It is no 
easy matter to tell a new beginner how to distinguish 
between them, for added fat also increases most mea- 
surements of the body. As already noted it is a safe 
rule to refuse to buy any stallion carrying fat to the 
extent of showing it in bunches (120). Most shrewd 
dealers have carried the feeding end of their business 
to a dangerous extreme. It is surprising to one who 
does not know, to learn the amount of weight that can 
be added to a draft stallion in ten or twelve months 
of good feeding. Fat covers a multitude of defects. 
Many a man has bought a ton horse, only to find when 
he has been put in good breeding condition, that his 
weight does not exceed 1.600 or 1,700 pounds. I know 
of one man buying a four yeRV old stallion at a weight 
of 2,020 pounds, which has never passed 1,600 pounds 
since he was six years of age. This horse to-day is 
without any patronage because of his smallness. He 
was sold by a dealer who advertises a barn full of all 
ton horses. In determining the actual size of a stallion, 
I have already called attention to the measurement of 
the leg (116). The fore leg should measure not less 
than 10 inches around the cannon in the smallest part, 
and not less than 12 inches behind. In body measure- 
ment, his height should be from I6V2 to 17 hands, to 
give best results. In girth measurement, one must take 
into consideration the amount of flesh he carries. Every 
hundred pounds of flesh added to a stallion weighing 
1,800 pounds will increase his heart girth more than 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLION 135 

an inch. In this measurement he should never be less 
than 88 inches in good breeding condition, and 90 
inches or more in flank girth. No stallion intended for 
the siring of high-class geldings can be too long in the 
body, so long as he has a short back. The short back 
in long bodied horses is made possible by the sloping 
shoulder and long quarters. This conformation gives 
us the horse with the long, easy stride. Such a stallion 
as described in good breeding condition as to flesh 
will give us a weight of better than a ton. This makes 
a good drafter. So good in fact that it takes much 
time to find one, and such a one if right in all ways is 
worth all he will ever cost you. Such a stallion, if a 
producer, will make his owner money in any part of 
the grain belt of this great country of ours. Such a 
horse, if a breeder, has never failed to make good. 
Competition from the viewpoint of today is unknown 
to him. A good type of draft stallion is shown in figure 
47. 

126. Disposition, One should avoid bad disposi- 
tions in buying a stallion. Should one become danger- 
ous or even difficult to handle, be sure and take no 
chances. No stallion ever lived that cannot be handled 
safely. It will not do to show fear, yet one can so 
handle a horse that no injury can be done, either to 
groom or stallion. Nothing is better for reducing the 
temper of a vicious stallion than hard physical labor in 
large doses. Many fairly intelligent and naturally 
good dispositioned stallions are made bad, because of 
their excessive masculinity, coupled with bad handling. 
The foals of such will have good tempers, while in- 
herited viciousness will again be transmitted. For 



136 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

controlling a bad tempered stallion when being used 
with a bridle only, use a rod eight inches long, with a 
small ring in one end, and a link in the other. Weld 
the link in the right bridle ring, pass the other end 
under the jaw and through the left bridle ring. By 
buckling the lead strap into the end ring of the rod, 
one can easily break a stallion's jaw. Such a rig is 
only severe as the stallion makes it so. It is well to 
have but one groom handle a bad tempered stallion. 
Many a fairly good temper has been made to go wrong 
by too many men handling the stallion. 

127. Summary. To put this entire chapter in one 
paragraph, a stallion should be endowed with great 
masculine power, as expressed in the voice, the expres- 
sion of the eye, the erect and alert carriage of the ear, 
the well defined crest, the massive jaw, the great mus- 
cular development about the neck and shoulder. His 
action should be as if he was overflowing with sexual 
power and vigor. The body should be long, but short 
on the back with sloping shoulder, and long, fairly 
straight croup and quarters. The underline should be 
long and well let down at the flank. Loin wide and 
well muscled. Ribs well sprung with great depth of 
body. Legs well set under him, with an elastic, slop- 
ing pastern. Hock wide, especially just below and at 
the joint, clean and well defined in all its points and 
angles. His feet should be good, with wide hoof-heads, 
wide and high at the heel with wide thick frog. His 
walk should be free, easy, in line, elastic, in short the 
equal of a perfect machine, made for that express pur- 
pose. This coui^led with soundness in every part, with 
the lungs and wind of a locomotive, with temperament 



THE SELECTION OF A STALLION 137 

aud intelligence of the best, will give yon a stallion 
you do not need to lead down the back alleys, when 
you take him to your home town. 

128. Grades and Unsound Stallions. One more 
thought and this chapter will be ended. You may now 
own a grade stallion, or you may own one with a pedi- 
gree extending back into the very remote past, but for 
all that, one that is unsound and of inferior quality. 
If you do, use him to the best of your ability. This is 
a privilege not yet denied you in many of our states. 
Get your money out of him as soon as you can, for in 
a very few years no stallion will be permitted to stand 
for service anywhere in this country, unless he is a 
pure bred, and free from all hereditary defects. Be- 
cause of this be careful as to the quality of the next 
stallion you buy. Go where we may, the same echo 
is heard rolling across the country ; only sound and 
pure bred stallions shall be used. It is in the very air 
we breathe. It is heard upon nearly every farm, and 
because of so many inferior and unsound horses reach- 
ing the markets, we now hear it in the auction ring. 
The American farmers can alwaj^s be depended upon 
to come out right upon any question of vital import- 
ance to their own interests and their country's welfare. 
They are now practically a unit in demanding such 
stallions. 



CHAPTER X. 



HANDLING THE STALLION. 

129. Care of the Stallion. The stallion is, generally 
speaking', the most abused of all our domestic animals. 
This abuse is not always intentional, it sometimes be- 
ing the result of intended kindness. It is none the 
less an abuse, however, when we shut a stallion up in 
close quarters for the greater part of a year. Another 
abuse which is intended as a kindness, is that of over- 
feeding, especially when such feed as corn is used in 
large quantities. Many stallions have been made more 
or less sterile because of such feeding. 

130. Grain Rations. The following table is the feed- 
ing systems of draft stallions owned in five states 
showing the comparative results of these systems from 
the viewpoint of foal production. 



No. of 


Kinds of No. of 


No. of 


Per Cent 


Stallions 


Grain Mares Bred 


Foals 


of 


Foals 


207 


Corn 37198 


14877 




40 


219 


Corn and oats... 34907 


15902 




46 


234 


Oats 38214 


20711 




54 


83 


Oats and bran... 11476 


7054 




61 


33 


Grass and alfalfa 5123 


4186 




82 



Some of the above stallions had stood for service 
years in the same place, and the mares listed includes 



HAXDLIXG THE STALLIOX 139 

mares for all those years. The records of stallions 
producing less than 20 per cent of foals in all these 
reports, were not tabulated. Such stallions I regarded 
as being partially sterile. Most of the sterile stallions 
reported were fed a grain ration of corn ; while no 
sterile stallions were reported in data gathered for this 
table where the grain ration was oats and bran, nor 
from those fed grass in summer and alfalfa during the 
winter. These fed grass in summer and alfalfa during 
the winter were owned in the western states, where 
stallions are often permitted to run in pastures with 
mares. It is less practiced now than formerly, be- 
cause of the rapid settlement of all public lands pos- 
sessing much value. Where this system of breeding 
was practiced, the stallions would be permitted to 
run in the pastures for four or five months, when they 
would ])e taken up and fed alfalfa for the balance of 
the year. 

131. Comparisons. By the above table we learn 
that a ration of oats and bran gave 61 per cent of foals, 
while corn alone gave only 40 per cent. Even corn 
with oats produced six per cent more foals than corn 
alone. In the case of grass and alfalfa, with no grain 
at any season of the year, we have 82 per cent of foals. 
It can not be said that these stallions were mated with 
better mares than the stallions fed other rations, for 
all except a few young fillies which remained in the 
pastures were mares that worked every day during 
the summer. The mares brought in for service were 
taken to a corral in the pasture to be bred, so that all 
mares were served in the pasture. Every stallion in 
this table was a pure bred, and 391 of the 776 were 



140 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

imported. Of tlit: 33 fed grass and alfalfa, 23 werg 
imported. 
132. The Foal Crop of Different States. If one 

wants other evidence that our s^ystem of feeding is 
wrong, if it is foals we are after, we have only to com- 
pare the foal crop of the several states to again learn 
something as to feeds. This table is not intended to 
show the kind of grain fed to the stallions, but it does 
show the per cent of foals in states where corn is the 
chief grain, as compared with those where corn is not 
fed. These statistics were gathered by sending blank 
forms to be filled and returned by stallion owners. It 
is not claimed that they are in all cases accurate, but 
without doubt they are as accurate as the average of 
statistics. 

State No. of Per Cent 

Mares Bred of Foals 

Colorado 6359 67 

Idaho 6417 73 

Illinois 14697 46 

Indiana 2247 47 

Iowa 22129 47 

Kansas 9678 44 

Michigan 2186 58 

Minnesota 7,973 61 

Missouri 8892 41 

Montana 8138 72 

Nebraska 26148 49 

North Dakota 4916 56 

Oregon 4971 71 

South Dakota 12046 52 

Washington 4613 71 

Wyoming 3667 72 

Wisconsin 5134 60 

Canada 14971 71 



HANDLING THE STALLION 141 

In this table we learn that in the six corn states: 
Illinois, Indiana, loAva, Kansas, Mssouri and Nebraska, 
no state can show 50 per cent of foals. Of these states, 
Nebraska is the highest with 49 per cent, while Mis- 
souri is the lowest with only 41 per cent. South Da- 
kota has seven counties classed as corn counties, the 
balance of the state growing more of the small grains, 
and we have 52 per cent of foals for the entire state. 
Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, Wisconsin and 
Canada may be regarded as oat states, oats being the 
principal grain feed in all these states. In this group, 
we have from 56 per cent in North Dakota to 71 per 
cent in Canada. This gain of the oat states over the 
corn states is much more than at first appears, when 
studied in the light of profit or loss to the stallioner. 
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington and 
Wyoming may be classed as grazing states, and we 
have here in this group from 67 per cent for Colorado 
to 78 per cent in Idaho, another very profitable gain. 

Corn and Grass Compared. In the light of these sta- 
tistics, the nearer we get to a corn ration, the lighter 
the foal crop ; while the nearer we can get to a grass 
ration, the larger the foal crop. I made an effort to 
obtain statistics upon this matter from other states, but 
not enough replies were made to justify their publica- 
tion. 

Our system of feeding draft stallions, owned and 
kept for breeding purposes, is bad. We feed too much, 
rather than too little, and not very often a balanced ra- 
tion. For best results in breeding, it is better to have 
too much rather than too little protein in our ration, 
but we must not feed too much. If our draft stallions 



142 STTIDIES IN HORSE BEEEDIXG 

were required to work every day in the year, it would 
be quite different, but very few perform any physical 
labor of any kind. This is not only bad from the breed- 
ing point of view, but it is the source of so much 
trouble in the way of sore legs in its many forms. 

133. Quality of Feed. The feed for a stallion should 
be of the best quality. Badly cured or musty hay 
should always be avoided. Clover and alfalfa if proper- 
ly cured have no equal,but never in larger amounts than 
one pound for each one hundred pounds of horse per 
day. Clover and timothy mixed is the next best hay. 
There is no hay so difficult of digestion for the horse 
as timothy. This is even more so when cut too ripe. It 
is also low in nutritive value, no better than good wild 
hay. Good hay is everything in feeding a stallion. I 
kept an imported stallion upon an exclusive diet of 
alfalfa hay for six years. During the season and sum- 
mer following, he worked in the fields five hours every 
day. In the winter he was used to assist in feeding 
the stock, which required him to be in the harness 
every day. During the six years he served 512 mares, 
414 live foals resulting. The foals all showed remark- 
able vitality, and the stallion kept in the best of breed- 
ing condition. This was done for the sake of the ex- 
periment. Other stallions kept at the same time, and 
under the same conditions, except grain being fed 
them, did not do so well nor leave so many foals. 

134. Oats the Best Grain. No one grain, fed alone, 
will give as good results as oats. The next best grain 
I have ever tried is barley, but it must be crushed. 
Unless alfalfa or clover is fed for hay, a little bran will 
improve either grain. I would make corn no part of 



HANDLING THE STALLION 143 

any stallion's ration. This is not because of what is 
disclosed by an analysis of corn, but because it is ab- 
solutely indigestible for any horse. The excrement of 
all horses fed corn is too acid, that is sour. There is 
always too much fermentation going on where corn is 
fed a horse. When swine are unable to either digest or 
assimilate corn, how can we expect the horse with his 
delicate digestive organs to do so? If we take two 
pens of swine of equal numbers, and feed pen number 
one all the corn they will consume, and feed pen num- 
ber two only the excrement from pen number one, the 
swine in pen number two will make the greater gain. 
This does not make a very good showing for corn as a 
grain ration for a horse. When either oats or barley 
have been used, I never feed a stallion during the 
breeding season more than three-fourths of a pound to 
the one hundred pounds of weight per day. Salt should 
be accessible to the stallion at all times. Both feed and 
water should be given at regular hours, but never feed 
a stallion grain or give him water within three hours 
of the time he will be required to make a service. 

135. Standing- for Service, No part of the stallion 
business shows such a want of business methods and 
ethics, as that of standing him for service. This is in 
part due to the owner of the stallion having no busi- 
ness system, and occasionally no business principle. 
The man who makes two prices for the same commodity 
is a dishonest man. ]\Iany men have failed in business 
because of this weakness. No man will ever succeed 
in the business who has two prices. It is Avith no feel- 
ing of egotism that I make mention of it, but I be- 
lieve no man living has ever bred more mares with 



144 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

stallions owned and controlled by himself than I have, 
and if I was asked what had contributed most toward 
my success, I would say it was because I have never 
made two prices for the same horse ; that I always 
tried to own horses just a little better than the other 
fellow, and lastly, that I have left nothing undone to 
make my patrons money. If you cut your fee for one 
man, even he will always believe you are doing it for 
others, besides being suspicious that you made a lower 
fee to the other fellow than you did to him. Have one 
price and try to make all pay it. 

136. Service Contracts. Much has been said and 
Avritten against the "live foal" and "stand and suck" 
contracts. I have been making a study of the farmer 
and breeder during the past thirty years, as well as the 
horse. I can show that either my system of bookkeep- 
ing is wrong or that such a contract is profitable. In 
giving patrons a choice of two contracts, $15.00 to in- 
sure a mare in foal, payable December 1st, or $20.00 
for a live foal, only about one in every 100 men have 
taken the "to insure" contract. Now, $20.00 is 33 1-3 
per cent more than $15.00, and for thirty years I have 
lost only six per cent of mares known to be in foal. 
To insure a live foal may not be as profitable as some 
other forms of insurance, but it is profitable. Few 
stallion owners keep their books in either a business 
or statistical form. All books in this business should 
be kept in statistical form to the end that one may 
know all about his business, and especially the kind of 
mares that are both making and losing him money. 

137. The Best Service Contract. No service con- 
tract known is so good for all parties concerned, as the 



HANDLING THE STALLION 145 

"cash in advance" contract, with privilege of return 
for the balance of the season. This is best for two 
reasons. First, it gives the stallion owner a better 
chance with his horse, because of practically barring 
all mares known by their owners to be shy breeders, 
besides giving the stallioner the use of his money at 
the time he should have it. He can afford to make a 
very low fee with such a contract. If he knows how 
many mares he can command, he can know to a cer- 
tainty what his income will be. Secondly, nothing- 
causes the average mare owner to take a greater inter- 
est in the business or to give his mares so good care as 
to have his foal fee paid for. Wherever it has been 
tried in the northern states, it has proved both popu- 
lar and successful. 

138. Conditioning the Stallion. One has no right 
to ask patronage of the public unless he is in a position 
to give good value for the money received. To give 
good value for service money received, not only re- 
quires a good stallion, but that the stallion must be in 
good condition. To start off the embryo life and fu- 
ture foal with the life force and vitality which it will 
need to carry it through to a vigorous old age, makes 
it of vital importance that the stallion be in the best 
possible physical and sexual condition. The stallion 
that has been confined in a small stall or yard for 
eight or nine months will be in mighty poor condition 
to sire such a foal. If the conditions are such that 
work is impossible, one should begin fitting his stallion 
as early in the spring as he can for the great work 
confronting the stallion. At least a month before the 
breeding season is expected to begin, the stallion should 



146 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

be given regular daily exercise. If he has done noth- 
ing but stand around all winter, he should be given but 
little exercise at first, but increasing the amount every 
day until the maximum is reached. He should be 
given service, even if it has to be given free to some 
one, at first one service per week, then increase the 
number of services by one mare each week until one 
service per day is reached. The complaint is general 
all over the country that mares do not settle well early 
in the season. It is not the mares, but the stallion 
usually at fault. In tests made of many stallions with 
the microscope, only a small per cent are found in good 
breeding condition in the early spring. Even one 
month would work great changes in a stallion, if the 
month was spent in exercise with an occasional service. 

139. One Service a Day. In the handling of stal- 
lions for service, no one thing has been the cause of 
more failures or more instrumental in causing a low 
per cent of foals, than the practice of making two or 
three services per day. Very careful and extended ex- 
periments with draft stallions, by the use of the micro- 
scope at every service have demonstrated the fact that 
from 10 to 13 hours are required for a draft stallion 
to secrete semen containing spermatozoa, providing 
the stallion is given regular daily service. Less time 
is required by warm bred, than by draft stallions. 

Many years ago, I was handling an imported Per- 
cheron stallion. The foals resulting from his first 
year's service Avere so good that I was forced to make 
two and three services daily during his second season. 
"Well along into the season, I observed he would some- 
times impregnate a shy breeder, but fail to settle a 



HANDLING THE STALLION 147 

regular breeder bred the same day. I blamed the 
horse rather than the mare. This led to my micro- 
scopical examination of the semen at every service. 1 
carried this work on for three seasons, using different 
stallions every season. As the results were practically 
the same with all stallions tested. I will give a com- 
plete record of one during a season of 84 days. This 
stallion began the season with one service daily, which 
was continued for 21 days, working in double harness 
in the field five hours each day throughout the entire 
season. The second 21 days, he made three services 
daily, no two occurring nearer than five hours apart. 
From the 63 services made during this period, sperma- 
tozoa were present in only 39 of them. The next 21 
days, he made two services daily, no two occurring 
nearer than eight hours apart. In the 42 services of 
this 21 day period, spermatozoa were present in only 
31 of them. During the last 21 day period, he made 
only one service daily, and spermatozoa were present 
in all of them. Here it will be observed that at the end 
of a strenuous season of 84 days, with only one service 
per day, every service gave results, while during the 
first half of the season, with three services per day 
only a little more than half of them gave results. Dur- 
ing the 21 day period when the stallion was making 
three services per day, I was just as likely to find the 
third service a good one as the first or second. I had 
a large number of mares of my own, so that by occa- 
sionally serving the same mare twice, I had no diffi- 
culty in making all services in the required time. 

140. The Stallion in a State of Nature. In handling 
a stallion, the best results will be had by following the 



148 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

natural instincts of the horse, so far as domestication 
will permit. In the aggregate I have spent several 
months both day and night upon the range with a 
stallion and his mares, for the purpose of studying the 
breeding habits of both stallions and mares. Much 
information of value to breeding I have gathered in 
that manner. It was thus I learned a mare is never 
served by the stallion until she is well advanced in 
her heat period, not until she is in perfect breeding 
condition. The stallion will make frequent visits to 
the mare, in some cases for three or four days before 
mating with her, and she in readiness for him all the 
time. In one instance I recorded 26 such visits before 
the stallion mated with the mare. Nor does the stal- 
lion abuse himself, as most men suppose, when running 
with mares upon the range. I have a record of one 
instance where a watch was kept for nine days and 
nights, with mares in readiness at all times, and yet 
the stallion made eight services only in the nine days. 

141. The Best Tinue for Mating. Another fact 
worth remembering is that 90 per cent of all services 
made under natural conditions are made between sun- 
set and dark, usually just at twilight. My own sta- 
tistics of farm mares bred, show this to be the most 
favorable time for impregnating them. This time of 
breeding with reference to farm mares is favorable 
because of giving the mare an opportunity to rest after 
the service. 

142. The Result of Too Frequent Service. When 
making services too often with a stallion, he is likely 
to acquire the habit of failing to discharge semen, a 
practice which soon gives you a stallion possessing no 



HANDLING THE STALLION 149 

value as a breeder. Even with natural service, a stal- 
lion will leave more and better foals with only one 
service per day, than when making two or more. The 
most accurate statistics we have upon the subject dis- 
close the fact that only 40 per cent of all mares bred 
in the United States produce foals, and that it re- 
quires three and one-half services of a stallion for 
every foal produced. The stallion that can not settle 
more than 40 per cent of his mares with only one 
service each, provided he has good handling, is not a 
sure breeder. Since w^e know the majority of stal- 
lions are sure, there must be some very poor handling. 

143. The Vices of Stallions. Many stallions acciuire 
vices by idleness, others by poor handling. Among 
these vices may be named cribbing, wind sucking, 
lip lapping and masturbating, which are all stable 
vices, generally the result of idleness. For all of 
them I would prescribe work, and before they are too 
well fixed to be broken. There are several vices show- 
ing themselves only at time of service, such as being 
too impetuous with a desire to run at a mare in a 
manner endangering the safety of the mare and all 
those in her immediate vicinity. There is nothing bet- 
ter for this than the rod through the bit rings and 
under the jaw, reference to which has already been 
made. Then we have the vicious stallion. This is al- 
ways the result, either of an inherited tendency, which 
can again be transmitted, or an excess of masculinity 
coupled with poor handling. Little is to be gained by 
handling any stallion roughly. Even a vicious stal- 
lion can be handled without danger to any one, by 
so handling him at all times that he has no opportun- 



150 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

ity to do any harm. Firmness with intelligence will 
do more than beating or clubbing a stallion. Vicious 
stallions are generally remarkable for their virility. 

144. The Use of Young Stallions. To make a good 
server of a stallion, one should begin with his first 
mare. It is easy to make a good server of any stallion 
if you can begin with him when a colt. A stallion should 
be taught early in his career to walk up to the left 
side of the mare, place his shoulder against her flank 
so as to avoid kicks, and mount her only when com- 
manded to do so. A little patience and intelligence 
upon the part of the groom, will soon result in teach- 
ing a colt so that he can be used in service without 
a strap upon him. In many respects it would be better 
if a colt could reach three years of age before making 
his first service. While nothing in the service itself 
can injure a colt, yet too early service is likely to lead 
to the vice of masturbation. If a colt is to be used in 
his two year form, never mate him with more than 
8 or 10 mares that year, and give him one mare every 
five days until he has served them all. Never use a 
young colt for teasing, and do not permit him to stand 
where he can see such work being done. If he can 
be used at light work at this time, by all means work 
him. In making the first service with a colt, use a 
quiet, steady mare, and have a strong man upon either 
side of her. As soon as the colt has mounted and suc- 
ceeded in beginning his work properly, have the men 
at each side of the mare take him by the fore legs and 
hold him well forward until he has made a complete 
service. By so doing, you will make a good server of 
him and keep him from getting into the habit of leav- 



HANDLING THE STALLION 151 

ing the mare too quickly, which so often results in a 
withdrawal of semen. 

145. The Use of a Breeding Chute. All breeding 
should be done in a breeding chute, one of which is 
shown in figure 37. There are several reasons for this. 
In case a small mare is being bred, she has no way of 
twisting around and hurting herself by the strain. 
There is also less danger of the stallion getting kicked. 
If the mare is tied close against the end and her head 
tied high by means of the ring as shown in the illustra- 
tion, she can neither hurt herself nor the stallion. In 
case of small or short mares, a floor can be dropped 
in the bottom to raise the mare up to any height de- 
sired. The l)est services are always made by raising 
mares slightly higher than the stallion. Another ad- 
vantage in the chute is in being an aid in handling 
colts or badly broken stallions. There are few mare 
owners in the country not more or less afraid of stal- 
lions. Accidents often occur as a result of this, when 
mares are simply being held. If in a chute, and tied 
securely, one has little trouble from any of these 
sources. Even if the chute is not used, a mare should 
always be tied securely instead of being held. 

146. The Use of Breeding Bags. All unnatural 
forms of copulation should be avoided. The use of 
breeding bags and cervical plugs are not only harmful 
in themselves, but many a good stallion and jack have 
been ruined by their use. The act of copulation is 
made possible by the electric forces of sex. The stal- 
lion is positive, the mare negative. Tlie use of any ob- 
ject that acts as a non-conductor of this interchange 
of electricity, has the same effect upon the animals 



152 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

as would masturbation. Many stallions refuse to serve 
with a breeding bag. They are wiser than their owners 
who would require it of them. Others work with it fair- 
ly well for a while, but most of these soon have trouble. 
The most serious trouble is where they have difficulty 
in ejaculating and if the practice is indulged in for 
any length of time, this form of trouble becomes per- 
manent. By all means abandon the use of all such 
devices. 

147. Stallions Running in Breeding Pens. The prac- 
tise of letting stallions run in the yard or pen to be 
used for breeding is to be condemned. Mares will 
urinate more or less where breeding is done. If stal- 
lions have access to such places, one will notice that 
they are always smelling and straining to such an 
extent that their virility is likely to become impaired 
as a result. Unless stallions are permitted to run with 
mares all the time, they should never be permitted to 
run or exercise in yards that are used for mares. 

148. Exercise. The exercise to be given the stallion 
has already received brief mention in this chapter, 
but the proper exercise for the stallion is so essential 
to breeding success, that to give the subject the thought 
it merits requires further mention. Those who are at 
all observing, have no doubt noticed that the foals 
sired by the several stallions in their vicinity differ 
in other ways than in breed or family characteristics. 
The get of one stallion will begin their existence in an 
enfeebled condition. Those of another stallion will be 
subject to some particular disease or weakness. Others 
will sire foals with nerves wanting; while the foals of 
other stallions will be ushered into life with all the 



HANDLING THE STALLION 153 

apparent vitality of a full grown horse. I know of 
one stallion siring some 50 foals in one season, about 
40 of them being weak in the back, so weak in fact 
that many of them died, and all had to be helped up for 
several days. Any physical condition common to a 
large part of a stallion's foals, is the result of some 
weakness or abnormal condition of that stallion. This 
is a fact worth remembering. 

149. A Want of Exercise Produces Weakly Foals. 
In times past, it has been the rule of most men to 
blame the mare for everything except that of produc- 
ing a good foal. Slipping, backing heavy loads or any 
one of several diseases on the part of the mare, may pro- 
duce fetal trouble, yet in a large per cent of cases, the 
stallion is at fault for the loss of foals. I have never 
owned two stallions producing foals of the same vital- 
ity. Even the loss of foals while yet in a fetal exist- 
ence is quite often the fault of the sire rather than the 
dam. In tests I have made of the semen of several 
stallions producing foals dying just before or at birth, 
the spermatozoa were of low vitality in all of them. 
Two stallions will stand for service in the same district, 
often in the same barn, serving mares kept under the 
same conditions, and subject to the same local environ- 
ment, yet the loss of foals at birth will be much larger 
in the case of the foals sired by one, than of those 
sired by the other. An inherited weakness on the 
part of the stallion is one cause of this, while a want 
of proper exercise is another. 

150. The Kind of Exercise. To prescribe a rule of 
work for stallions is no easy matter. What one man 
understands as work or exercise, another will con- 



154 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

vert into an abuse of the stallion. Then stallions dif- 
fer so greatly in temperament, some actually requiring 
strenuous exercise to be able to give a good account 
of themselves in breeding, while others require but 
little exercise to give good results as breeders. That 
every stallion in service should be given sufficient ex- 
ercise to expand the lungs, quicken the circulation, 
strengthen the nervous system and harden the muscles, 
in order to be in a condition to beget the most and 
best foals possible, the breeding and quality of the 
stallion considered, can be denied by no one. The real 
question is how best to do it. Our light or harness 
breeds are generally given more exercise than our draft 
stallions, and they require it, as they possess a Jiigher 
nervous organization. To use them in the harness for 
driving, is the best exercise that can be given them. 
Besides this kind of exercise will aid in stamping upon 
the offspring this same quality of speed or high acting, 
as the case may be. This principle as a factor in 
breeding, we should not overlook, for it is at work 
throughout all Nature. The fighting instincts of ca- 
nines and felines are always the most active at their 
season of mating. Antelope and deer whose natures 
make the quality of speed a defensive necessity, to aid 
them in fleeing from their enemies, always indulge this 
propensity in the extreme immediately before mating. 

151. Draft Work For Draft Stallions. This law of 
Nature will apply to the breeding of draft horses. 
Leading or driving in a cart is better than no exer- 
cise at all, yet it is not the exercise we should give 
our draft stallions if we ever expect to build up a 
breed of good American horses to be used for draft 



HANDLING THE STALLION 155 

purposes. Real draft work in the harness is the only 
exercise for a draft stallion. The plow, harrow, disc, 
mower, binder or farm wagon upon the farm, or the 
dray or heavy transfer wagon in town or city is an 
exercise that will fit a draft stallion for producing foals 
of the highest quality, and possessing a vitality which 
could not be given them by a stallion not worked. In 
addition to this, such use of our draft stallions will 
prove a mighty factor in developing and transmitting 
from stallion to foal in a high degree, all those muscles 
required by the draft horse in moving heavy loads. 

152. Working- Stallions During the Breeding Season. 
Nor do we need to stop working them in harness dur- 
ing the breeding season. The best success I have ever 
had with draft stallions has been by working them 
in the field during the first half of the day, then letting 
them rest a few hours, making their daily service at 
about four o'clock in the afternoon. There is very 
little danger of over-working a stallion in harness with 
the system of one service a day. If not abused, the 
harder he is worked the better will be his foals. The 
strongest argument ever made in favor of the scrub 
stallion, is that he occasionally sires a foal better than 
himself. This only because of the limited number of 
his services and hard physical work. He is always in 
the pink of condition from the breeding point of view. 
Those who have never seen the test made would be 
surprised at the disclosures made by the microscope 
upon the semen of a stallion as usually handled, and 
again of the same stallion after being worked hard in 
the harness for sixty days. 

153. Harness Work a Cure for Indifferent and Ster- 



156 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

ile Stallions. Hard work and plenty of it, is the best 
thing that can be given a slow or indifferent server, 
and it will cure a large per cent of partially sterile 
stallions. The owner of a stallion owes it to the pub- 
lic, quite as much as to himself, to have his stallion kept 
in such a condition as to insure his siring the very best 
foals. The difference in the value of a foal ushered 
into life with some weakness or of low vitality, can 
not be compared with one beginning life endowed with 
all the vigor of constitution inherent in his race. Many 
ills of the horse result from some inherited weakness, 
which more likely than not was the result of a want 
of physical exercise on the part of the sire. By the 
practice of giving our stallions more work and less 
drugs, will enable us to produce a much better race of 
horses. Drugs and stimulants should be scrupulously 
avoided at all times, unless prescribed by a qualified 
veterinarian. 



CHAPTER XI. 



THE SELECTION OF A BROOD MARE. 

154. Femininity. AVhat masculinity is to the stal- 
lion, femininity is to the mare. The stallion should 
be positive, the mare negative. The hard, determined 
expression of the stallion should be changed to one of 
mildness and softness in the mare. The massive jaw, 
the muscular crest, and the action expressive of great 
power in the stallion should in the mare be represented 
by refinement of character. A greater length of loin, 
and a wider and deeper make of rib should also be 
found in the mare. The mare is Nature's receptacle, 
to receive and develop the creation of the stallion. 
Other things being equal, the more feminine the mare 
the better and the surer breeder she will prove 
herself to be. I have observed that barren mares are 
more masculine than feminine. A lack of the sex char- 
acteristics is good evidence of a lack of procreative 
power. Castrating colts while young, causes them to 
develop more like mares than stallions. Unsexing mares 
by removing their ovaries while young will cause them 
to develop coarser, more like horses than mares. The 
same may be said of everything pertaining in any man- 
ner to sex. In selecting brood mares, great care should 



158 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

be exercised in selecting only those showing feminine 
character, which means they are well sexed. All brood 
mares famed for their excellence in such a capacity are 
always found to be of the most pronounced feminine 
type- Note the extreme feminine character as indicated 
by the refined head, ear, jaw and neck shown by the 
mare in figure 49. This mare produced a foal of the 
highest quality, every year for many years. It is not 
necessary that a mare should be undersized to be fem- 
inine. Some mares of extreme size are much more re- 
fined and feminine than others of less size. 

155. Stallioners Owning Brood Mares. .One or more 
pure bred mares should be owned by every owner of 
a high class stallion. Even if the owner of a stallion 
lived in town, he could well afford to own a high class 
mare of the same breed to which his stallion belongs. 
In the first place, nothing would help him in securing 
patronage for his stallion from among the better class 
of men, so much as to be able to show a foal or two 
of the highest quality. Then again, the rearing of a 
good pure bred foal every year would add much to 
the profits of his stallion, enabling him to keep a strict- 
ly high class horse. Nothing so encourages the horse 
breeding industry in a community as the pure bred 
mares which may be owned there. A good pure bred 
mare has been the means of causing many men to breed 
better horses. 

156. Where to Buy Mares. The purchasing of a 
pure bred mare has ended in many a disappointment. 
In times such as the present, when no legitimate bus- 
iness is paying such a revenue on the investment as the 
draft mare of quality, is a fairly good reason why such 



THE SELECTION OF A BROOD MARE 



159 



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160 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

mares known to be producers are rarely offered at 
public sales. Those who have purchased mares at such 
sales only to find in the years that follow, that to have 
purchased a gelding would have proved just as prof- 
itftble, are many. I have seen mares respond to the 
call of the stallion while being sold under a positive 
guarantee that she was safe in foal. 

157. Rules in Bu3ring Mares. There are two rules 
in buying mares, which if followed closely will rarely 
result in a disappointment. The one is to buy mares 
only with a foal at foot. Such a mare has proved her- 
self a breeder. The other is to buy young fillies, and 
only of the man who bred them, that their sire and 
dam may both be seen. The latter plan is preferable, 
as by this way more may be known of what to ex- 
pect of the filly, both as to her proving a producer 
and the quality of her foals. 

158. Pedigrees and Certificates. This brings up the 
question of pedigree or certificate. Many believe if 
an animal is registered, it must be a pure bred. It does 
not need to be, and very often is not. Many mares 
and stallions are being sold every day with certifi- 
cates that are far from being pure bred. They are 
known as top-cross animals and are far too common 
in the Pereheron breed and stud book. High officials 
in the association of this breed are offering many such 
in their annual sales as shown by their catalogues. 
Such horses are only grades with a certificate and 
while these certificates may have a value of their own 
to a dealer, to a reputable breeder they have no value 
whatever. However, if one has had no experience 
with breeds and pedigrees, he does not need to be 



THE SELECTION OF A BROOD MAKE 161 

deceived by these top-cross certificates. If the dams 
of any animal registered can not be traced back to an 
imported dam, that animal is only a grade. The fol- 
lowing certificates, both taken from the stud book of 
the Percheron Society of America, will illustrate this 
point, the first one being a pure bred : 

Collector— No. 60152. 

Sire: Tremont 33647, by Due de Broglie 2368 (1145), by 
Brilliant 1271 (755), by Brilliant 1899 (756), by Coco 11 (714), 
by Vieux Chaslin (713), by Coco (712), by Mignon (715), by 
Jean le Blanc (739). 

Dam: Selma 46354, by Bayard 10959 (20891), by Luther 
4093 (212), by Luther (792), by Pierre (887), by Laboureur 
(886), by Jean le Blanc (739). 

Second dam: Niobrara 44715, by Bolet 14217 (19799), by 
Sans Souci 7100 (6070), by Snowflake (107), by Avata 1966 
(912), by Nogent 738 (729), by Vidocq 483 (732), by Coco 11 
(714), by Vieux Chaslin (713), by Coco (712), by Mignon 
(715), by Jean le Blanc (739). 

Third dam: Myra 6068 (Paquerette 6139), by Cheri (5464), 
by Mouton, etc. 

Fourth dam: Rosette (6134), by Selim (749). 

It will be noticed in the above certificate that the 
third and fourth dams are both mares that were bred 
in France as indicated by the numbers in parenthesis. 

The following is the certificate of a so-called top- 
cross or grade : 

Cinq.— No. 54895. 

Sire: Costa 42290, by Leroy 21193, by Mithridate 20535 
(35918), by Archimede 11411 (7222), by Voltaire 3540 (443), 
by Brilliant 1271 (755), by Brilliant 1899 (756), by Coco 11 
(714), by Vieux Chaslin (713), by Coco (712), by Mignon 
(715), by Jean le Blanc (739). 



162 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

Dam: Octo 25483, by Hercules 19985, by Messidor 11567 
(22456), by Forban 7368 (5374), by Picodor (5391), by Pico- 
dor. 

Second dam: Cathrine, by A'Venture 1448 (803). 

Third dam: Catli, by Premeier 11, 1451. 

Fourth dam : Calebs, by Emperor 658. 

Fifth dam: Carlo, by Chartres 518. 

It will be noticed in the above certificate that the 
dams do not trace back to an imported mare, and that 
only the first dam is registered. Therefore the colt 
Cinq. No. 54895 is only a top-cross or grade, being of 
the sixth cross and possessing sixty-three sixty-fourths 
of Percheron blood. This is assuming the certifi- 
cate and pedigree to have an honest foundation. It 
is in such pedigrees, however, that we find the great- 
est temptation to misrepresent pedigrees. If the other 
sixty-fourth part of the blood of this colt was of any 
of the other draft breeds, no harm could result. It is 
because of not knowing of what this outcross consists, 
that we should not use such horses for breeding pur- 
poses. It may be any of the small breeds, or even 
of an Indian pony. As soon as the American farmer 
and breeder understand what this means to the future 
of the horse breeding industry, such horses will be 
given no place in breeding. 

Then there are other certificates given with both 
stallions and mares by unscrupulous dealers, possess- 
ing no value whatever. There are a few associations 
in the country quite ready to register anything for the 
fee. In buying such horses, one is always buying a 
grade with a pedigree, which is used only as an aid 
in making the sale. 



THE SELECTION OF A BROOD MARE 163 

159. Conformation. In comformation, the draft 
mare should not differ from the draft stallion. Size, 
the sloping pastern and shoulder, good feet, and hock 
of the best, both as regards quantity and quality, 
should always be demanded. If good foals are desired, 
good mares must be a factor in their production. A 
good and well sexed stallion, with correct conforma- 
tion may be able to sire very good foals when mated 
with only ordinary mares, yet we should not expect 
him to do it all. The best horses are possible only 
by the use of good mares. 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE CARE OF THE BROOD MARE. 

160. Every Normal Mare a Breeder. The mere own- 
ership of a mare does not mean that one owns a brood 
mare ; yet, if a mare refuses to produce her kind, it 
is more likely to be the fault of her owner than her 
own. Nature made every entire female a breeder. If 
you own a mare of breeding age and she does not 
breed, ask yourself why. About twenty years ago I 
purchased some mares in eastern Iowa and Illinois. 
These mares were from three to nine years of age, and 
the most of them were sold only because they would 
not produce. In April 101 of these mares were turned 
out to range in the nortliM^est part of South Dakota. 
They were all large mares of draft blood, weighing 
from 1400 to 1700 pounds. About the first of June 
I began breeding them to an imported Percheron stal- 
lion. The mares were all driven into a corral every 
Monday and Thursday. All mares in season would 
be bred upon those days by making one natural ser- 
vice and capsuling the others. I made but two services 
each week with the stallion. In 30 days every mare 
had been bred once. Some were bred as many as three 
times during the season. The next spring these 101 



THE CARE or THE BROOD MARE. 165 

mares produced 53 live foals. The next year they 
produced 91 live foals, handled and bred in the same 
manner. The third year, every mare had produced at 
least one foal, and yet many of their former owner? 
were honest enough to tell me the mares he was sellings 
were barren. The two oldest mares were nine years 
of age when I bought them, and their owner told me 
he would not think of selling them if they would 
breed. He had bred them every year from their third 
to their eighth year, but with no results. With such 
a record behind these mares, and with nothing having 
been done to aid them in breeding but simply turn- 
ing them back to Nature, every mare proved herself 
a producer. 

161. The Abuse of Brood Mares. No one thing 
which I have tried to impress upon the minds of farm- 
ers and breeders, and with so little effect, is the need 
of better care of mares in foal, and those they wish 
to breed. The}^ will drive a pregnant mare six or eight 
miles to town and tie her to the hitch rack. They 
will work them until they are warm, and then let them 
stand in the wind until chilled. They will even drive 
them to a buggy ; use them in deep mud and upon 
slippery roads without shoes; back heavy loads with 
them ; in fact do scores of things with them every day 
which they should not do, and then wonder why they 
do not breed, or why they lose their foals. Because 
their grandfather's old Kate did these things and pro- 
duced foals for many years, is conclusive proof to 
their minds that all mares should be treated in the 
same manner. 

162. Occupation of Mare Owners. For more than 



166 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

twenty years I have classified my country patrons into 
breeders, grain farmers and hay farmers. Those des- 
ignated as breeders made the breeding of live stock 
their chief business. The grain farmers made the grow- 
ing and marketing of grain their specialt3^ The hay 
farmers grew and marketed hay. The table below will 
show how they stand as breeders. 

No. of Average No. of Per 

Class — Mares Bred Age. Foals Cent 

Breeder 5146 9.6 3447 67 

Grain farmer 3297 9.3 1747 53 

Hay farmer 2674 9.9 1042 39 

11117 ... 6236 56 

It is a long call from 67 per cent down to 39 per 
cent. What a difference to the stallion owner ! We 
do not have to go far to learn why the hay farmer 
produces so few foals. In hauling his hay to market 
he will be out in all kinds of weather and upon every 
known condition of roads. When he reaches the 
market his mares will be warm, and often required 
to stand out in the cold for hours. Colds and a gen- 
eral catarrhal condition are usually the result. Only 
this winter I called the attention of a farmer to the 
fact that his mare was too warm to be left standing 
in the cold. He thought differently, but only a few 
days after this occurrence one of his neighbors in- 
formed me that this same mare had aborted. In this 
table the grain farmer shows 53 per cent of foals. 
The same rule applies in a less degree. The more 
brood mares are used away from home and upon the 
roads, the fewer the foals. The breeder, regardless 
of the kind of stock he is breeding produces a much 



THE CARE OF THE BROOD MARE 167 

higher per cent of foals, and for two reasons. His 
breeding and feeding of stock offers no occasion for 
his mares to be worked upon the roads. Secondly, 
the breeder is a higher type of man than the grain or 
hay farmer. He will always be found with larger 
sympathies, which is a mighty factor in successful 
breeding. 

163. Occupation of Mares. Much depends upon the 
occupation or general use to which mares are put, in 
the way of producing foals succes.sfully. Upon this 
subject I have been keeping records also. I have 
classified them according to their occupation, into farm 
work, where they never left the farm; combination 
farm work and driving; driving with no other occu- 
pation ; and saddle work. This does not include so 
many as the former table, because of not always 
knowing how to classify some mares ; besides there are 
a few mares apparent!}' used for several purposes. 
In this table mares were used only as specified. 

No. of Average No. of Per 

Class — Mares Bred Age. Foals Cent 

Farm work 2361 9.4 1605 68 

Farm work and driving 2417 9.1 1305 54 

Driving 1683 8.9 690 41 

Saddle 264 7.9 76 29 

Average 6725 9.0 3676 54 

Here we learn that the occupation of the mare has 
much to do with her as a producer. The above table 
teaches us that if a mare must work, her work should 
be something she can do at a slow pace. Where the 
occupation was farm work alone, the mares produced 
68 per cent of foals ; while farm work with driving 
gave only 54 per cent. Driving gave still less with a 



168 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

showing of 41 per cent. The saddle mares did not pro- 
duce enough foals to justify a stallioner in breeding 
them, unless the fee be paid in advance. The pace 
they are required to make, coupled with the extra 
weight upon the back is fatal to breeding. While in 
the South during the winter of 1903 I met a breeder of 
saddle horses and he told me his per cent of foals was 
so small as to make his business unprofitable. When 
I learned that his mares were being used under the 
saddle much of the year, I suggested that his brood 
mares be ridden at no time, nor for any purpose. Three 
years later this breeder wrote me his foal crop had 
more than doubled since he began using his brood 
mares for breeding only. 

164. Work vs. Pasture. I have always held that 
draft mares would produce the best foals when required 
to perform a reasonable amount of labor in the harness, 
but statistics teach us that they do not produce as 
many. This is not because of being worked, but be- 
cause of not being worked judiciously. During the 
summer hot days will come occasionally when mares, 
if worked at all, will be made too warm. Such days 
were quite frequent during the summer of 1909 and 
1910. When in humid weather the thermometer climbs 
to 95 and 100 degrees in the shade, it is a waste of time 
to attempt to work brood mares if one does not wish to 
overheat them. Then again if one is working brood 
mares he is more likely than not to get in places where 
it will be necessary to pull the mare beyond her safety. 
Another condition against the brood mare often made 
necessary by work is that of standing when warm 
until a cold is the result. 



THE CABE OF THE BROOD MARE 169 

Mares running at all times in good pastures or upon 
the range escape these dangerous conditions, which 
results in a larger foal crop. If mares must work upon 
the farm, and a good pasture can be provided, by all 
means give her and her foal the benefit of it nights and 
Sundays. 

165. Feeding Mares for Foals. Feeding has much 
to do with successful breeding, and it requires even 
more than a balanced ration for best results. Corn can 
be so used with bran, clover, alfalfa or other feed 
rich in protein, that chemically it will not differ from 
oats, yet mares fed oats will produce more foals than 
when corn is any part of the ration. Mares fed oats 
with bran will produce more foals, than those fed oats 
without the bran. Mares fed grass and hay with no 
grain, will produce more foals than when fed grain of 
any kind. 

The following table speaks for itself. 
No. of Average No. of Per 

Mares Bred Feeds — Age Foals Cent 

468 Range feed 10.1 425 91 

183 Grass in summer; alfalfa 

in winter 9.9 161 81 

208 Hay, oats, bran 9.2 147 71 

398 Hay and corn 8.7 195 49 

231 Corn, bran, hay 8.9 117 52 

306 Corn, alfalfa or clover... 8.8 177 58 

418 Hay and oats 9.0 284 68 

The mares in this table kept under range conditions 
were not worked. Those fed grass and alfalfa worked 
about one-third of the time. The others were selected 
because of being owned upon farms where good care 
and kind treatment was the rule. They all worked, 
but never left the farm. The rations fed were the 



170 STUDIES IN HORSE BEEEDING 

same as had been used for many years. Nothing was 
left undone in the selection of these mares to have 
every condition, other than feed, the same with all the 
mares. The results of this experiment is at variance 
with the opinions of many of our best breeders, but 
such facts are more convincing to my mind than the un- 
supported theories of any .man. The question of feed 
is one of the unsolved problems of the American 
breeder. The question of soil in producing the same 
feed, is of equal interest. Alfalfa, for instance, grown 
in the corn belt is but little if any better than clover. 
This same plant grown further west at an altitude of 
3,000 or more feet, is the best food for growing and 
developing a draft horse ever grown upon mother 
earth. In bone, and muscle and the quality of both, 
nothing can compare with it. 

166. Com a Menace to Fecundity. Then again, 
there is corn. Chemically, there is no reason why corn 
can not be balanced and made a good feed, yet in fact, 
unless the breeders of draft horses in the corn belt 
change from corn to some other feed, within a century 
their mares will all be barren. It has the same effect 
upon the stallions. Either stallions or mares that have 
never been fed corn can be put upon a corn ration for 
a year or two without apparent injury. After that 
length of time the injurious effect of the corn becomes 
noticeable. I have known many stallions to be fed corn 
exclusively for their grain ration for three or four years, 
acquitting themselves nicely in the stud during this 
time, and then become sterile all at once. These same 
stallions were again made breeders within a year by 
simply substituting oats for the corn. The same has 



THE CARE OF THE BROOD IMARE 171 

proved true of many mares. I have often succeeded in 
restoring to bearing- corn fed mares that were supposed 
to be barren, by simply changing their diet from corn 
to other grain or alfalfa. 

167. Short Time Feeding Experiments. It is such 
facts as these that show the utter folly of attempting 
short time experiments in grain feeding. Such an ex- 
periment to be of the highest value to breeders should 
be conducted for a period of twenty years, or even 
longer. Theories may be all right in their place, but 
every known fact shows conclusively that corn is both 
debilitating and degenerating to the horse. The tem- 
perature of mares fed corn, averages higher than in the 
case of those fed oats or other grain. As to corn being 
a factor in degeneracy, I have made many extended ob- 
servations. In the case of two lots of mares of the 
same breeding and quality, the one fed corn and the 
other oats or no grain, and both lots bred to the same 
stallion, those fed corn always produced the poorer 
foals. These foals were not only inferior to the others 
as foals, but did not mature into as good horses. In 
many tests I have made of the bone of horses fed upon 
different grains, those fed corn always showed the 
weakest bone. In weight per cubic inch, it appeared to 
be as good as the bone of horses fed other grains, but 
as soon as it would be given the leverage test it was 
found possessing very little strength. Those reared 
from their colthood up to maturity upon an exclusive 
diet of western alfalfa, showed the best quality of bone 
of any draft horse tested. For the same breeding, the 
bone was larger, and greater in both weight and 
strength. 



172 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

I shall not attempt to say why a corn diet has such 
an effect upon stallions and brood mares, for I do not 
know. To be positive concerning this question, I shall 
want to experiment further. However, this fact I have 
settled to my own satisfaction, that corn is indigestible 
to any horse. It may be because of its indigestibility 
that the system becomes so impaired in all its varied 
functions that degeneracy naturally follows. 

168. Pasture. There is no feed so good for a brood 
mare as good, nutritious grass. In dry seasons, or in 
case of a scarcity of good grass, a grain ration of oats 
should also be allowed. There are few pastures in the 
eastern or middle states growing grasses sufficiently 
nutritious to support a brood mare and her foal with- 
out a ration of grain being added. This is the more 
true if the mare is of draft blood. It requires an abun- 
dance of nutritious feed to grow a ton horse. 

169. Salt should be accessible to brood mares at all 
times. Water should be given often, to avoid drinking 
too much at one time. Too much hay or other coarse 
food is neither good nor necessary for mares. As we 
have already seen (165) alfalfa is the best of all feeds. 
Clover should be well cured and placed under cover 
without any foreign moisture being permitted to reach 
it. Any hay which has been wet with rain during the 
curing process, is not ver}^ good for a brood mare. Good 
bright oat straw, free from rust is preferable to dam- 
aged hay. Com stover well cured is good for both 
mares and stallions. Sorghum or sugar cane is a haz- 
ardous food for a brood mare. Upon one large farm 
where many mares were kept for breeding purposes, 
sorghum hay was fed for three years with good results. 



THE CARE OF THE HROOD MARE 173 

l)ut the fourth year because of some condition in 
weather while cnring, it caused the loss of more than 
one-half of the foal crop. The same experience has 
been recorded on several occasions. It may be fed sev- 
eral seasons without apparent injury, only to play 
havoc with all the mares the next year. Millet should 
never be fed in any form to a brood mare. The same 
may be said of all those wild grasses likely to contain 
ergot. 

170. The Stabling of Mares has much to do with 
their fecundity. In the early settlement of this coun- 
try our mares and horses were sheltered in cheaply 
constructed stables, in which the question of ventila- 
tion did not need to be considered. There were always 
enough openings in the stables of our early settlers to 
provide ventilation. IMares were much more fecund in 
those days than they are today. We did not hear of 
colds, coughs and influenza in those times, as we do 
now. In modern times the first thought of one in 
building a new barn is to provide against the cold of 
winter. Little thought is given the question of either 
light or ventilation, both essential to breeding success. 
If mares are to be worked during the winter they should 
be housed at night in a barn, but this barn should be 
built so as to admit of an abundance of light and air. 

171. Mares Running- Out All the Time will do better 
if they do not have to be worked, than those kept in 
barns of any kind. An open shed can be given them 
to run under during stormy weather. For several 
years I have taken my pure bred mares out of expen- 
sivelj^ built barns, and let them run out at all times 
with only a cheaply built open shed to provide against 



174 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

storms. I have increased the per cent of foals consider- 
ably by doing this. Our modern barns are the source 
of much trouble to breeders because of being built 
warm, at the expense of sunlight and ventilation. Sun- 
light is the best germicide we know of, and the cheapest. 

172. When to Breed Mares depends upon the amount 
of work required of them. INIore foals are lost from 
among the early ones, than from those coming later in 
the season. About 11 per cent of foals are lost before 
weaning time, from deaths and abortion. This is upon 
the basis of mares actually impregnated. Of the losses 
from death following a normal birth up to weaning 
time, about 85 per cent are those foaled before May 
first, as against 15 per cent after that date. The causes 
of these deaths will be taken up later. Because of this 
heavy loss early in the season, one should have their 
mares foal as late in the season as possible. This en- 
ables one to have the foals come when grass is good. 
There is no place so good for a mare to foal as in a 
good pasture. Many of the worst ills of the young foal 
can be avoided by this practice. The danger of infec- 
tion is thus reduced to a minimum, besides there is 
little danger of the newly born foal having bowel 
trouble, if the mare has access to good grass. 

173. Management of Pregnant Mares. If because 
of the conditions of farm work, one must have some of 
his foals come early, he should have everything in 
readiness for them. A mare should never be kept tied 
in with other horses for three or four weeks before her 
foaling date. Many foals have been lost by doing this, 
as foals often put in their appearance long before they 
are expected. A mare about to foal should be given a 



THE CARE OF THE BROOD MARE 175 

good box stall, so constructed that the foal will have 
no way of crawling under the manger or getting into 
positions which will make it impossible for him to gain 
his feet. This stall should be kept scrupulously clean. 
If an extra stall can be provided, so much the better. 
As soon as the foal can stand upon his feet, and the 
placenta has been expelled from the uterus of the mare, 
they can be transferred to the clean stall, thus avoiding 
as much as possible all forms of infection. If the pla- 
centa has not been expelled within thirty minutes, and 
does not yield to very gently pulling upon it, the arm 
should be disinfected and inserted into the uterus. By 
gentle and careful manipulation of the fingers between 
the placenta and membranes of the uterus, the placenta 
can easily be taken away. There is nothing difficult 
about this. Any man can do it, if he possess ordinary 
intelligence. The sooner the placenta is expelled, the 
better, as the uterus begins to contract very soon after 
the birth of the foal. This contraction of the uterus 
more tightly fastens its hold upon the placenta. If 
the placenta has to be taken away by force, it will be 
well to irrigate the urterus with a warm three per cent 
solution of carbolic acid. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



STERILITY. 



174. An Inherited Tendency a Cause of Sterility- 
Sterility is more often the result of au inherited ten- 
dency than most of us are willing to admit. For many 
years I worked systematically in an endeavor to learn, 
if I could, the basic cause of this tendency. Among 
other things I tested the fluids (blood) of many stal- 
lions and mares as to the per cent of salt found in 
these fluids. For this work I used both mares and stal- 
lions possessing all degrees of virility and sterility. 
The average for stallions was 71-100 of one per cent, 
ranging all the way from 5-10 of one per cent to 92- 
100 of one per cent. The mares showed an average of 
76-100 of one per cent, slightly higher than the stal- 
lions. They ranged all the way from 54-100 of one 
per cent to 1.01 per cent. The stallion testing 92-100 
of one per cent was one famed for his virility. With 
no exception they were stallions possessing a lower 
virility, as the per cent of salt showed a lower test. 
When 55-100 of one per cent was reached the stallions 
became sterile or nearly so ; five per cent of foals be- 
ing the best showing made by any stallion below that 
test. 



STERILITY 177 

The mare testing 1.01 per cent was one that had pro- 
duced fourteen foals in as many years. The same re- 
sults were obtained with the mares as given by the 
stallions ; the lower the per cent of salt, the lower the 
fecundity of the mare. All mares testing below 6-10 
of one per cent of salt were found barren. Here we 















' ^^ 




\ ) 



Figure 51. Microbes found in the semen of a sterile stal- 
lion. These germs caused the depopulation of several herds 
in the western part of the country. 

have something tangible upon which to base the cause 
of this shy breeding tendency. This is a hereditary 
tendency, but it can be overcome in part at least by 
feeding salt to all breeding animals. It was only last 
summer that one of the leading live stock journals of 
the country advised its readers to feed salt sparingly to 



178 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

their breeding animals. I have been feeding my stal- 
lions and mares all the salt I could get them to con- 
sume for many years, and with uniformly good results. 
It can readily be understood that salt could be forced 
into a horse by mixing it with feed in such quantities 
as to impair his digestion. My method has been to 
have salt accessible to my stallions and mares at all 
times. In adition to this, I add a teaspoonful of salt 
to the feed of each stallion daily, and to the mares 
twice each week. 

175. Breed a Factor in Sterility. The question of 
breeds has something to do as to sterility. From this 
view-point the table below offers quite a study. These 
stallions were all pure bred, about 70 per cent of all 
the breeds having been imported. They were owned 
and stood for service in the states of Iowa, Illinois, 
Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, South 
Dakota and Wisconsin. All five of the breeds were 
represented in every state. The mares were such as 
came to be bred, the service registers being used to ob- 
tain the number of mares. The number of foals given 
are for the number actually found. This would be as 
fair for one breed as another. Some of the stallions 
were used at the same stand two or more seasons, and 
the number of mares given include those for all the 
seasons. Only stallions owned by farmers who owned 
their farms are included in this table. These farmers 
might be considered above the average as horsemen 
and breeders. In gathering statistics for this table a 
stallion was occasionally reported as sterile. In such 
cases the mares bred were not tabulated. It was the 
performances of breeding stallions that I wished to 



STERILITY 179 

obtain. The per cent of sterile stallions reported was : 
Belgians, 3.09 per cent; Clydesdale, 4.6; Perclierons, 
3.16; Shires, 5.02; Snffolks, none. 

No. of No. of No. of Per cent 

Breed — Stallions Mares Bred Foals of Foals 

Belgian 219 29783 18168 61 

Clydesdale 103 9241 4990 54 

Percheron 613 83659 46017 55 

Shire 321 41976 20571 49 

Suffolk 27 2397 1554 69 

The above table teaches ns that the Suffolk leads, 
with a showing of 69 per cent of foals. The Shire is 
lowest with only 49 per cent of foals, a difference of 
20 per cent. The Clydesdale and Perclierons are about 
the same, while the Belgian is second in the table with 
a showing of 61 per cent. Breed then has something 
to do as to the number of foals we may expect. Nor 
does the factor of breed affect the stallions only. It 
is just as plainly indicated upon the part of the mares. 

The following table is a record for three years of 
American bred registered mares, owned in the same 
states as given for the stallions. 

No. of No. of Per cent 

Breed — Mares Foals of Foals 

Belgian 191 405 71 

Clydesdale 78 153 65 

Percheron 711 454 68 

Shire 367 652 59 

Suffolk 19 47 82 

These mares were from four to ten years of age. All 
of them were worked some, but none very much. In 
this table while the ratio varies slightly, yet the breeds 
hold their same positions. Imported mares of the same 



180 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

breeds are not so fecund. The act of importing itself 
is something of a factor in producing sterility. The 
table below is a record of mares for the three years 
following that in which they were imported. If they 
were imported during the year 1900, the records be- 
gin with their being bred the season of 1901. This 
gave them a chance to recover from the ill effects of 
importing. The mares in both tables were those owned 
by small breeders, that is farmer-breeders, who would 
own from one to five such mares. 

No. of No. of Per cent 

Breed — Llares Foals of Foals 

Belgian 61 89 49 

Clydesdale 17 19 38 

Percheron 212 267 42 

Shire 134 133 33 

Suffolk 11 28 84 

Again the breeds hold their same position as to 
fecundity, differing only in ratio. These imported 
mares were all of breeding age when they landed in 
this country, but this table makes a sorry showing for 
such mares during their first three years with us, the 
Suffolks excepted. It is to be hoped they may do 
better in the future. Such a showing does not make 
them very profitable to their owners. 

176. Feeding has much to do with the sterility of 
stallions. This has already been conclusively shown 
(130.) The feeding of corn to stallions, especially 
young stallions, has been the beginning of many dis- 
appointments. All kinds of feed having a tendency to 
produce a high temperature should be avoided. If 
stallions reach 10 years of age in good physical and 
sexual condition, their sexual powers are not easily 



STERILITY 181 

impaired by ordinary means after that age. This is 
because of the fact that only stallions of the greatest 
sexual power and vigor ever reach that age without 
becoming impaired. INIany stallions start out with 
much promise in their early life, only to become of 
no value as producers by the time they are seven or 
eight years old. It is such stallions that need our 
very best care. Besides they should be used very 
sparingly in the stud. 

177. Breeding Bags. The use of breeding bags 
on stallions and jacks is a very common cause of ster- 
ility. No stallion or jack can be used with a breed- 
ing bag w^ithout positive injur.y. Thousands of dollars 
have already been lost in this manner. Natural copu- 
lation is effected bj- the interchange of sexual elec- 
tricity. Any foreign barrier which is a non-conductor 
1)1' this electricity will soon ruin the best horse in the 
world. Such a barrier has the same effect upon the 
stallions as masturbation. We have no need of train- 
ing stallions to become masturbators, as there are 
plenty of them without this training. ]\Iention has 
already been made (9) of how the use of breeding 
bags will cause the loss of the power of ejaculation 
as a result of injury to the sympathetic nerve. 

178. Masturbation is another cause of sterility. 
Young horses acquiring this vicious habit are almost 
certain of going wrong as breeders. If this habit is 
of long standing it is almost impossible to overcome 
it. Nothing is better than steady work and a cooling 
laxative diet. 

179. Vigor Tablets and other stimulants are fre- 
quent causes of sterility. Doping stallions with drugs 



182 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

can never do any good, and may do very mnch harm. 
In the first place no stallion ever needs that kind of 
stimnlating. Good feeding' and plenty of physical 
work is the best stimulant known. The nerves can be 
strengthened, the muscles made more firm ; the circu- 
lation quickened and the performance of every func- 
tion of the horse improved by work, better than by 
any drugs. There will always be grafters and quacks 
ready to sell one tablets and powders and tonics with- 
out end, but leave them alone. 

180. Colds, Influenzas and many forms of sickness 
are the causes of temporary sterility, sometimes re- 
sulting in permanent sterility. Stallions partially 
sterile are likely to be made worse by these causes. 
There are stallions appearing in the best of health 
from October until April, and then annually go wrong 
for the balance of the year. Such stallions have little 
value as breeders, and it will generally prove more 
profitable to castrate them than to spend time and 
money in trying to make breeders of them- 

181. Cystic Degeneration of one or both testicles 
occasionally is the cause of sterility — sometimes it is 
a cystic condition of the spermatic cord rather than 
the testicles, but in either case there is no help for 
the stallion. This is made even worse by being one of 
those difficult conditions impossible of diagnosng, ex- 
cept in the last stages of the disease. When discov- 
ered castration will make you a work horse, if not de- 
layed too long. 

182. Contagious Diseases of the generative organs 
will make both stallions and mares unprolific. A num- 
ber of years ago I was called into the western part 



STERILITY 183 

of Nebraska to examine some stallions that had very 
snddenly become sterile. In examining the semen with 
the microscope, the form of bacillus shown in figure 
51 was disclosed. These stallions had proved to be 
virile under all circumstances, when all at once they 
became sterile. Every mare served by them became 
sterile and as a result of this highly infectious malady, 
several ranches were depopulated of their horses. No 
ulcers, chancres, or other outward manifestation was 
in evidence in the case of any of these stallions, yet 
in the semen of every one was found these germs. 

183. Idleness or want of proper exercise will lower 
the sterility of any stallion. The spermatozoa of idle 
stallions never have the vitality of those from stal- 
lions given daily exercise. Very few stallions win- 
tered in idleness are capable of settling mares early 
in the spring, while those kept in harness during the 
winter are always in good condition at the beginning 
ol' the breeding season. Close confinement has been 
the cause of many stallions going wrong. All stal- 
lions kept in close quarters and without exercise will 
sire foals of lower vitality than if they had been 
properly exercised. 

184. Overwork to the extent of causing a break 
down of the more important functions of the stallion, 
sometimes ends in sterility. I have never known this to 
be done except in the case of very young stallions, two 
years or less of age. I have known of several two year 
old colts to be completely broken down in constitution 
by overwork. There is little danger of this being 
done in the case of mature stallions. With them the 
work is too little rather than too much. If a two year 



184 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

old colt proves himself a breeder, but does not make a 
good showing later, there is something wrong with his 
handling. This happens quite frequently. The fact 
that he acquitted himself well in his two or even three 
year form, is conclusive proof that he is a normal 
breeder. 

185. Table of Causes of Sterility Some stallions do 
very well for three or four years, and then become 
sterile or nearly so at once. In investigating such 
cases the following results were obtained: 

Excessive use in breeding 183 

Masturbation 98 

The use of breeding bags 87 

Too close confinement 39 

Vigor tablets or tonics 67 

Influenza (pinlv eye) 11 

Infectious diseases of a sexual nature 9 

Overworking young colts 3 

Fevers 4 

No cause could be assigned 43 

Total 544 

Of the 544 stallions becoming sterile after proving 
themselves breeders, 183 of them could be assigned 
to excessive breeding. These stallions were mostly 
abused as four year olds. It is not uncommon to see 
a stallion of that age required to make two or more 
services daily Because of their trouble with denti- 
tion at this age, a four year old should never be used 
upon more than 50 mares. There is no reason why a 
draft stallion should not be as virile at twenty as at 
any earlier period of his life, and he will be if used 
and handled intelligently. The second largest number 



STERILITY 185 

could be assigned to the vice of masturbation. This 
vice is not only making many sterile stallions, but it 
is making many others partially sterile. Breeding 
bags make a bad showing as do also the use of tonics 
or stimulants given to slow servers. That a stallion 
is a slow server is nothing against him. Some of the 
most virile stallions are exceedingly slow. Such stal- 
lions never need any drugs. A few minutes brisk ex- 
ercise immediately before the service will do more 
than any drug. Diseases of various natures also bring 
about sterility. There were 43 becoming sterile for 
which no cause could be assigned. These stallions had 
been properly exercised, had never been sick, were 
given the best of care and had never been used iu 
excess in breeding. This makes it impossible to assign a 
cause, unless it would be the result of an inherited 
tendency. It is my belief that an inherited tendency 
to sterility was the cause, but as this is one of the 
things not easily proven, I am willing to give them 
an unassignable cause. Mares with a tendency to 
sterility will produce stallions inclined to be more or 
less sterile. Stallions partially sterile will sire stal- 
lions possessing the same defect. Upon the other 
hand, stallions of known virility and mares highly 
fecund are always the offspring of productive parents. 
186. Sterile Mares, There are more agencies at 
work causing sterility in mares than in stallions. A 
mare will produce several foals in as many years, and 
then refuse to produce another, and all because of a 
congested condition, the result of a cold. The number 
of sterile mares in the country is enough to discourage 
the breeder and stallioner. Since Nature made every 



186 STUDIES IN HORSE HREEDIXG 

mare a producer of her kind, if she does not reproduce 
herself, there is something wrong as to the manner in 
which she is kept. 

187. Feeding has already been mentioned (165) as 
having much to do with the fecundity of mares. It 
has also been noted that corn should be fed to a brood 
mare sparingly (165) or not at all would be better. 
The food for a brood mare should be slightly laxative, 
as constii^ation should never be found in the same 
barn with successful breeding. 

188. Work in the Harness has much to do with a 
mare in the production of foals. I am of the opinion 
that a mare could be worked to advantage as a breeder, 
but she has never been, and most likely never will be. 
It matters not what the occupation of the mare may be, 
in every line of investigation, the mares not worked 
produce the most foals. Occupation has much to do, 
that is the kind of labor. Slow farm work gave better 
results than any other occupation. 

189. Congenital Causes of Sterility. Among the 
congenital causes of sterility is that of rudimentary 
or undeveloped genital organs. The uterus and ovaries 
are the most likely to be undeveloped. One frequently 
finds an uterus in fully developed mares not more 
than one-tenth normal as to size ; sometimes a little 
larger, yet far below normal. The same is true of the 
ovaries. Quite often they will be found very small, 
having the appearance of having suffered from atrophy, 
but as this condition is cometimes found in young fil- 
lies only two or three years of age, one can hardly 
take that view of it. But after all is said of such con- 
ditions, the fact remains that such mares do not breed. 



STERILITY 187 

Such mares always appear masculine in character, and 
there is no way of making producers of them. 

190. Abscess Formation. Another condition of the 
ovaries frequently met with, is that of abscess forma- 
tion or cystic degeneration. This condition always 
results in a sterile mare. This is more easily diag- 
nosed than that of atrophy or rudimentary ovaries. 
Since the cystic condition enlarges the ovary to two 
or three times its normal size, which can easily be de- 
termined by w^ay of the rectum. Only a little further 
back we find another condition, which is frequently 
the cause of sterility. 

191. Tumors in Fallopian Tubei In the middle nar- 
row portion of the fallopian tube a tumorous growth 
is sometimes found, completely closing the tube. This 
I believe to be induced by ova of unusual size lodging 
there, and which the system of the mare was incapable 
of absorbing. This must necessarily result in sterility. 

192. Tumors are frequently found within the uter- 
ine cavity. They are of two kinds, fibroid and can- 
cerous. Fertilization w411 never take place if cancer 
is present. The fibroid tumors do not always result in 
sterility. It is only in cases of large tumors that 
mares fail to breed. These tumors are seldom found in 
the case of young or virgin mares. They usually begin 
their growth as a result of laceration, or a portion of 
the placenta having failed to be expelled. 

193. Malposition of the Cervix often prevents the 
spermatozoa from entering the uterus. The cervix or 
neck of the uterus will sometimes be found bent up- 
wards or to one side. Then sometimes the muscles 
whose function it is to contract and dilate the cervix, 



188 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

contract it so tightly that it must be opened by the 
hand before the spermatozoa can enter. These condi- 
tions are barriers to natural service only, as the cap- 
sule method of breeding finds no difficulty in impreg- 
nating mares of this kind. 

194. Acid Secretions. Unnatural secretions, both 
acid and alkali are a source of much trouble to breed- 
ers. The acid conditions are more frequently met with. 
There are corrections for these conditions, and they 
will be taken up later. 

195. Catarrh. Catarrhal conditions are the cause of 
more trouble than all other conditions combined. This is 
the strongest argument that can be made against work- 
ing brood mares, since this condition is never found in 
mares that do not work. Mares will be worked in the 
field or driven upon the road until warm, and then 
made to stand until chilled, when congestion and a 
general catarrhal condition follows. A few mares show- 
ing this condition will occasionally breed, but only oc- 
casionally, while the greater number will not breed at 
all. This is but an inflammatory condition of the mucous 
membranes. With such a condition present, the. fetus 
can not become attached to the maternal membrane. 

196. Bacteria is another source of trouble in pro- 
ducing sterile conditions. I have often found them in 
sterile mares that otherwise appeared normal. 

197. Incestuous Breeding. Inbreeding as a factor 
in the cause of sterility is far greater than is generally 
known. In many of the draft breeds the records have 
been so kept, and so little importance has been given 
the value of pedigrees, that violent inbreeding is more 
generally practised than most breeders know. In the 



STERILITY 189 

case of imported animals, matings within the same 
family are frequently made, and yet the certificates 
do not show them to be of the same family. This in a 
measure at least is the result of more attention having 
been given to pedigrees than to the horses brought 
over by some of our importers. I have several times 
during the past few years advised breeders to use a 
stallion of different breed when all other measures 
had failed to impregnate their mares, and in most 
eases the first service would result in successful im- 
pregnation. , 

198. Magnetic Temperament- The one cause of 
barrenness in mares that has been the most overlooked, 
is that of a proper balance between the positive and 
negative forces of sex. A very positive mare will 
hardly ever conceive when mated with a stallion pos- 
itive and masculine to a high degree. This same mare 
mated wdth a passive stallion, may conceive at once. 
In like manner a very negative and feminine mare 
rarely conceives when mated with a stallion of the 
same magnetic temperament, but will conceive at once 
when mated with a positive stallion. When everything 
else fails to settle a mare, try a change of semen. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE CARE OF THE FOAL. 

199. Nourishing the Fetus. The proper care of the 
foal should begin with the fetus at conception. No 
good horse will ever be developed out of a poorly- 
nourished fetus. No time in the life of a horse can 
compare with its fetal existence for the development 
of vital force. The half starved fetus means a horse 
with low vitality. If the stallion and mare were of 
good vitality and in good health at the time of con- 
ception, the fetus was ushered into being right. To 
keep up this fetal vitality, will require plenty of good 
wholesome and nutritious food for the mare. She 
should have all she wants of a properly balanced ra- 
tion, for she must eat and digest for two. I have never 
seen as good foals produced in the grain belt, as are 
produced further west. Where mares can have good 
western bunch grass during the summer and good 
western grown alfalfa during the winter, one gets 
the best foals the world ever produced. Here one finds 
bone and muscle as no where else. If the alfalfa hay 
is grown without irrigation, so much the better. An- 
other factor most helpful in this western production 
of foals is the pure air, water and abundance of sun- 
shine. This should be remembered by those producing 



THE CAEE OF THE FOAL 191 

foals in th^ grain belt. Keep the mares summer and 
winter in the open air as much as possible. The 
nearer we can follow that western ration the better. 
Well cured clover hay and oats is as near to it as we 
will ever get. For draft mares doing no work, two 
pounds of good clover hay and one-half pound of heavy 
oats (oats that will test 32 pounds or better) daily, 
to the hundred pounds of weight will make a good ra- 
tion. I have had better success with this ration here 
in the corn belt, than any other I have ever tried, al- 
falfa excepted. If mares are worked, more oats 
should be added. 

200. Overworking Mares. Working mares too hard 
while carrying and developing their unborn foals is 
another way to produce a horse of low vitality. If a 
mare must work, she should not be hurried. Slow, 
steady work does not injure a mare, even up to within 
a few days of her foaling date. , 

201. Parturition. The three of four days following 
parturition is a critical time, and a trying one in the 
life of a foal. A foal starting life in a feeble or ab- 
normal condition can not be expected to develop into 
a horse of vitality. There are many cases where a 
little help in regulating the digestion of a foal would 
have resulted in developing a horse with a more vig- 
orous constitution. As soon as a foal has been ushered 
into life, every precaution should be taken to prevent 
infection. The navel should be disinfected the first 
thing done. Any of the coal tar preparations may be 
used in about a five per cent solution. Or a 1-500 of 
one per cent solution of corrosive sublimate is one of 
the best. Lysol is an excellent disinfectant, and may 



192 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

be used one teaspoonfiil to the pint of water. As to 
the umbilicus, never ligate or tie it in any manner. In 
doing so one is most likely to lay the foundation for 
a case of pus absorption. Many practitioners advise 
doing this, but it very often results in serious trouble. 
If ligated there is bound to be some blood, and perhaps 
urine, form there with no way of getting out, except 
by absorption. 

202. The Umbilicus. Under natural conditions, the 
umbilicus is always torn away at the body. Under 
conditions of domestication it will do this in at least 
nine cases out of ten. If it has to be cut, it should be cut 
about six inches from the body. In doing this should 
the blood flow in a manner at all alarming, it can be li- 
gated for a time with a cord that has first been well 
disinfected. In a few hours the cord may be removed, 
when a thorough emptying and disinfecting of the 
remaining umbilicus should be made. To give this 
matter the closest attention may be the means of sav- 
ing a foal. This is all the more necessary in the early 
season. Late in the spring and during the summer 
months there is very little danger of infection. 

203. Its Early Nourishment. The proper nourish- 
ment of the foal is the next thing to interest the 
breeder. Whether the foal sucks or has to be fed it 
should be given the first milk of the mare. This first 
milk is known as colostrum, and has a purgative effect 
upon the foal very much needed at this time. If the 
foal is reasonably strong it will find the teat all right. 
If it should appear too weak to do this, the mare should 
be milked and the foal fed while the milk is warm. 
AA^ith one to hold the foal and another to do the feed- 



THE CARE OF THE FOAL 193 

ing this can be accomplished with a dessert spoon bet- 
ter than anything- else. One or two feedings will usu- 
ally result in giving the foal sufficient strength to find 
its own food. 

204. Bowel Trouble. During the first twelve hours 
of its life it should be known that the foal has voided 
its urine, and that its bowels are working normally. 
The bowels are more likely to give the greater trouble. 
If there is trouble in starting the feces, a little olive 
oil injected into the rectum will generally start every- 
thing moving all right. If this does not bring about 
the desired results, one should not stop until all the 
fetal matter has been removed from the bowels. This 
may take several hours, but there is no need of losing 
a foal from trouble of this nature. In obstinate cases 
an ounce of castor oil may be given, and the rectum 
well irrigated with a warm soap suds, using only pure 
castile soap for this purpose. The first symptoms of 
this trouble are the foal standing with its back arched, 
its tail erect and later its head and ears will l)egin 
to droop. 

205. Dysentery at this time is not unknown although 
not a very frequent trouble. This is usually brought 
about by the condition of the mare. She may have 
been eating food such as moldy hay or grain that 
caused the trouble. It may be her milk is too rich and 
the flow too liberal for its delicate digestion. In such 
cases I have had my best success by milking away 
much of the mare's milk, and giving the foal 
every two or three hours a teaspoonful of lime water 
in a few spoonfuls of milk. Also reduce the grain 
ration of the mare for a time. If it does not yield to 



194 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

this, I would suspect infection to be the cause. In 
such cases a veterinarian should be called, as these 
cases can best be subdued by a serum treatment, which 
should not be undertaken by everyone. 

206. Light Feeding Best. Feeding the mares spar- 
ingly of grain until the foal is eight or ten days old 
will give the best results. The digestive organs of a 
new born foal are about as delicate as are those of a 
new-born babe, and feed forcing should never be at- 
tempted during the first few days of its career. When 
the foal has made a nice start, the feed of the mare 
may be gradually increased. If good grass can be 
had at this time, by all means let both mare and foal 
have it. Good clean oats may be fed a foal when it 
has reached three or four weeks of age. Only a few 
at first, and when it has learned to eat and relish 
them nicely, it may safely have all it wants of them 
until weaning time, which should take place when the 
foal is about five months old. 

207. Mares Having no Milk. Should the mare have 
no milk when the foal is born, let it suck just the same. 
If the mare is sucked regularly every two hours or 
oftener, in most cases the milk flow will start before 
the third day has passed. In the meantime the foal 
should be fed cow's milk. This should be continued 
until the mare furnishes the foal with all the nourish- 
ment it needs. The cow's milk should be prepared 
with great care lest you lose the foal. Into a pint jar 
which has previously been sterilized with boiling 
water, pour water to one-eighth full, add one teaspoon- 
ful of granulated sugar, and fill with new milk from a 
fresh cow if possible. This should be fed warm, at the 



THE CARE OF THE FOAL 195 

body temperature, and the pint will be a sufficient 
quantity for one feed, but it should be fed as often as 
every two hours. It is quite a lot of work to raise a 
foal in this way, but I have done it, and they made 
good horses. A nipple over the spout of a teapot is 
the best thing to use for feeding a hand raised foal. 

208. Weaning the Foal. Weaning the foal can be 
done with no loss of growth. Himply dry the mare up 
by letting the foal suckle less often all the time. I 
never milk a mare in weaning a foal. The mare will 
cease to secrete milk after a time, if the foal be per- 
mitted to suck but twice a day for a few days, then 
once only until the mare is sufficiently dry to have the 
foal taken away from her- During the weaning pro- 
cess the foal can be tied in a stall at the side of the 
mare at night. By this way of weaning the foal is 
more contented, and does much better than if taken 
away from the mare at once. After the weaning pro- 
cess has passed, the foal should never want for either 
pure water or wholesome food. No grain food alone 
will equal oats. If timothy or prairie hay is used for 
roughage, bran can be added to the oats, about half of 
each by measure. If alfalfa or good clover can be se- 
cured the l)ran Avill not be needed. The bran made at 
small country mills is much better than that made at 
the large commercial mills. In the large mills it is 
poorer because of taking everything out but the outer 
covering of the grain, and again because they have 
scouring machinery for scouring the grain which small 
mills rarely have. In the large mills, everything that 
can be used for nothing else goes into the bran. 

209. An Automatic Feeder is the best way of feed- 



196 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

ing' foals and weanlings. By this means the foals can 
have grain whenever they desire it, and yet at the same 
time they can neither waste nor soil the feed. If the 
best possible weights are wanted at maturity this is a 
good way to feed until maturity is reached. It is im- 
possible to grow the big: ton horses without plenty of 
good feed. Another advantage in the automatic feeder 
is that it compels the foal or horse to eat slowly. This 
results in a more thorough mastication, obviating those 
forms of indigestion which are caused by too rapid 
feeding. 

210. Exercise is even more important than feeding, 
if the best quality of horse is desired. There is no way 
known of developing good bone and muscle and vital 
organs, except by exercise. The foals should have a 
large place in which to run and play, and let them run 
to their heart's desire. I often hear people express 
themselves in a way to cause me to believe they were 
afraid the foals would hurt themselves. They will hurt 
themselves more by being denied this privilege. In the 
summer time, all colts should be at pasture. Here they 
can get both exercise and the best feed for all growing 
animals. 

There w^ould he few sterile stallions in the country 
if all stallions were grown from their foalhood up in 
good pastures. I have never had any trouble of this 
kind with a stallion I had grown up to maturity myself. 
I always keep them either in the pasture or in the har- 
ness at all times. When they become so old I can no 
longer turn them in a pasture together, I have several 
small pastures of two acres each, fenced about nin-; 
feet high, in which I can turn stallions of any age. 



THE CARE OF THE FOAL 197 

This fence is made b\' using posts 12 feet long, so set 
in the gronnd that nine feet or a little more will remain 
above gronnd. For fencing I nse woven wire 52 inches 
high, and made of very heavy wire. Above this I fin- 
ish to the top with barbed wire six inches apart. This 
makes a fence which a horse cannot get his head over, 
and will stop any stallion. The posts shonld be set one 
rod apart. 

211. The Feet of the foals and yearlings and two 
year olds as well, shonld be kept in the best possible 
form. This will reqnire trimming occasionally. If a 
foal is inclined to go over on one side with a foot, trim 
upon the opposite side only. Never cut away the frog 
from the foot of a foal or growing horse, and never 
pare down the heels. 

212. Handling the Foal properly dnring its early 
life will add much to the value of the future horse. 
Gain its confidence early, and then never deceive the 
foal. It delights in being handled and fondled as much 
as an affectionate child. Its future is at stake, and it 
should be handled at all times with a view to making 
it trustworthy at maturity. A foal or horse will do 
almost anything for sugar, but sugar should be given 
as a reward for good conduct, rather than a ration. In 
very large quantities sugar is not good for a growing 
horse. 



CHAPTER XV. 



THE BREEDS. 

213. History. The history of the several breeds of 
horses has been written by men well qualified to dis- 
cuss that subject from every viewpoint. The agricul- 
tural and live stock press of the country has at many 
times reviewed these works, bringing out the more 
essential features in such a manner that the public 
generally has a very fair knowledge of this subject. 
For business reasons the press above referred to has 
been silent concerning a few of the things, which the 
breeders of the country have been wanting to know. 
Because of this delinquency upon the part of our live 
stock press, I will give a brief description of the chief 
characteristics of the more important breeds. This will 
be done only from the viewpoint of the breeder. No 
attempt will be made to write or regard it in any man- 
ner as a history. To do this in a manner worthy of the 
subject, would require the space of a large volume. 
Only the briefest mention of the breeds from the view- 
point of today will be made. 

214. Classes. The first division of the horses into 
breeds or classes, is into the draft horse and those to do 
the lighter and more speedy work of man. Into the 



THE BREEDS 199 

horse of great motive power, and those of greater ac- 
tion. Of the former class we now have five breeds, 
Belgian, Clydesdale, Percheron, Shire, and Suffolk. For 
the purpose of this chapter the latter class can be sub- 
divided into four sub-classes, the heavy harness or park 
horse, furnished by the Hackney and Coach breeds; 
the light harness horse of which the Standard and mod- 
ern Morgan are best representatives ; the five-gaited 
saddle horse and the Thoroughbred or running horse. 
The latter is the basis of all good blood in all the light 
classes. 

215, Where Draft Horses are Grown. To speak in- 
telligently, or to have a correct understanding of the 
merits of a breed of horses one must know something 
of the country in which they were grown. We should 
also know something of the people originating them. 
A horse that Avould be a good one in one part of the 
wcu'ld might possess but little value in any other loca- 
tion. The conditions of soil, water and climate are 
mighty factors in the making of any breed of horses or 
even of man himself. Few people have ever given this 
thought the attention it merits. Those who are trying 
to grow large draft horses upon their impoverished 
soils are doomed to disappointment. All the famous 
draft horses have had their origin upon the best of 
soils, soils rich in lime, potash and phosphorus ; that is 
on soils rich in bone material. One finds them grow- 
ing on rich land always, and that the size of the breed 
is determined by the capacity of the soil to grow an 
abundance of rich nutritious food. Small horses can 
be grown almost anywhere, but the big drafter requires 
big feed, and this in turn rich soils to grow it. The fu- 



200 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDIXG 

ture may modify this somewhat by taking the feed 
grown upon rich soil in one locality, and shipping to 
localities of less feed and thinner soils. The future 
home of the big horse will not be one of altitude, but 
wholly one capable of producing the feed. Another 
factor entering into the discussion of breeds, is that of 
differing opinions as to correct standards. Scarcely 
any two peoples, or even men. can be found agreeing 
upon a common standard. Even .judges differ, and 
when they differ there is mighty little chance for ordi- 
nary breeders to agree. Men also have different motives 
for doing things, money having a greater influence 
upon the people of some nations than it has upon the 
acts of others. 

216. The Belgian. The breeders of the very small 
territory making up the monarchy of Belgian have been 
peculiarly situated for the growing of big horses, and 
yet they have succeeded in growing a horse capable of 
carrying more weight than any horse in the world. 
Because of their small and cramped situation every- 
thing has been sacrificed to the moving of heavy loads 
at a minimum of cost. In muscular development he 
excels over all breeds. His compact form, with low- 
flank line and great depth of body are evidence of his 
being a good feeder and easy keeper. His constitution 
and digestion are good. Because of this, coupled with 
his great capacity for carrying his feed, makes him one 
of the very best shippers. He also adapts himself eas- 
ily to change of climate. In fecundity and longevity 
"Ihe Belgians are about the average of the draft breeds. 

In the early development of the breed but little atten- 
tion was given to either conformation or soundness. 



THE BREEDS 



201 




202 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

Because of this early neglect, he is not yet as prepotent 
in the reproduction of the most desirable types as some 
of the other breeds. Although much improvement is 
noticed of late, he is still too short and straight in the 
pastern, and also too full in the hock. Many specimens 
are rather short in the neck, low in the back and short 
in the croup. Much has been said by his admirers in 
favor of his intelligence and docility, but I have found 
him neither as good in disposition nor as intelligent as 
some of the other breeds. His brain capacity is very 
small. This is indicated bv the shortness of head from 
eye to ear. The Belgian is found in all the colors, bay, 
roan, and chestnut being the colors most frequently 
seen. 

217. The Relative Soundness of Breeds. The fol- 
lowing circular will explain itself. I believe it to be 
the first attempt ever made by anyone to collect data 
to aid in adopting a standard for draft horses from 
the utility point of view. At the same time it shows 
the tendency of breeds to become unsound in certain 
directions, when put to hard work upon the streets of 
our cities. 

"Knowing your business calls for the use of a large number 
of horses, I feel you should be no less interested than the 
breeder in the best it is possible to produce. The fact has 
probably been forced upon you before now, that some horses 
have as much service in them as two or three others appar- 
ently as good. As an aid in producing better horses, will you 
kindly fill out and return to me the blank form below. 

"How many horses have you in service at this time? 

"From the standpoint of dominant blood, to what breeds 
do they belong? Give number of each. 

"How many are unsound in front with side-bone, ring bone, 
navicular lameness, shoulder or foot trouble? 



THE BREEDS 



203 




Figure 53. The imported Belgian stallion. Robt. II De 
Rum 3595 (46686). This stallion is one of the best of the 
breed and a well known show stallion. Owned by Chas. 
Irvine, Ankeny, Iowa. 



204 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

"In each case of unsoundness or lameness in front, give de- 
scription of pasterns, as to lengtli and angle. 

"How many are unsound behind, with hock, fetlock or pas- 
tern lameness? 

"Are any unsound or lame from hip trouble? 

"In each case give the particular trouble and the breed to 
which the horse belongs." 

The above circular has for many years been mailed 
to those firms using large numbers of horses, ranging 
in size from 1,400 to 2,000 pounds. These firms were 
located all the way from Bangor. Elaine, on the east, to 
Portland, Oregon, on the west. In all an ownership of 
101.839 horses have been reported. This includes some 
Canadian owned horses. The following table shows 
how the breeds stand as to soundness : 

No. Horses No. Becoming Per Cent 
Breed — Reported Unsound of Unsound 

Belgian 1499 511 34 

Clydesdale 21382 2992 14 

Percheron 59160 26028 44 

Shire 19798 3371 17 

Totals 101839 32902 32 

In some instances horses were reported as Normans 
or French draft. These are included in the Percheron 
list. Of the 101,839 horses reported, 32,902 were re- 
ported as unsound. This makes a very bad showing, 
and emphasizes the need of better standards and better 
sires. The Belgians were reported in smaller numbers 
than any other breed. This in part is due to many 
grade Belgians passing as grade Percherons. A little 
less than one-third, 32 per cent, were reported as un- 
sound. I found it a rule in most barns to report as 
unsound only those incapacitated for full work. The 
showing made in this table is all the worse, when it is 



THE BRKEUS 



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206 .STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

remembered that these horses were purchased sound. 
The Belgians were unsound chiefly, because of defec- 
tive hocks and pasterns. 

218. The Clydesdale. In Scotland we find the home 
of the Clydesdale. In his early history he was very 
nuich like the Shire, both having a common origin. In 
the production of the modern Clydesdale, more science 
has been employed than in the production of any other 
draft horse. To such an extent is this true, that scien- 
tifically speaking, he is the world's best product in 
draft horses. When viewed from the standpoint of a 
perfectly and scientifically constructed machine, built 
to perform its work with the greatest ease and least 
friction, he has no equal. His sloping shoulder and 
elastic pastern, his short back but long underline, and 
his well nigh perfect hock, cause him to do his work 
with so little friction and concussion resulting, that his 
legs seldom go wrong. The world's best breeders, re- 
gardless of their favorite breed, concede to the Clydes- 
dale the most perfect action at the w^alk. I have seen 
in the large cities of Scotland, geldings still fresh in 
their legs after working for ten or more years upon the 
streets. 

The sloping pastern is occasionally being overdone, 
and to improve the quality, some of the ruggedness of 
the early Clydesdales is being lost. With all his good 
qualities; with his nearly perfect conformation, he is 
not generally popular in this country, and will not be 
luiless the Scotch breeder will make a few concessions 
to win the trade of the breeders of the United States. 
I say concessions, for they are such when viewed from 
the angle of the Scotchman. 



THE BBEEDS 



207 




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208 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

The Clydesdale is too nervous, too unbalanced in the 
head to please most Americans. He is also cut up in 
the flank to such an extent that he is usually a poor 
feeder. Then his color is much against him in this 
country. The people of the middle and western states 
do not take kindly to any but a whole colored horse. 
Horses with white legs and faces, and occasionally 
white spots on the body can not be made popular in 
this country, but when all is said there is more promise 
for the Clydesdale of the future, than has been known 
in the past. The Clydesdale breeding associations, both 
in this country and in Scotland, have much to be hoped 
for. There is no suspicion of wrong doing by the asso- 
ciations or any member thereof, and there is a visible 
effort on the part of all interested to keep the Clydes- 
dale up to a high standard of excellence. The geldings 
of this breed are becoming more popular every year, 
and they justly merit this ])opularity, for their wearing 
((ualities are of the best. In size they are smaller than 
the Shire, and larger than the average of Percherons. 
They have plenty of bone of good quality, with their 
legs well set under them. In fecundity they are about 
the average of the other draft breeds. 

219. The Percheron. The Percheron is found in all 
the colors known to draft horses, black and grey pre- 
dominating. He is found in this country in larger num- 
bers than all other draft breeds coml)ined, quite conclu- 
sive evidence of his ])opularity. In intelligence the 
Percheron has no equal among draft horses. He has 
also an abundance of nervous energy, making him an 
agreeable horse to work and handle. This has been the 
chief factor in gaining for him his great popularity in 



THE BREEDS 209 

this country. The American has little time to waste 
upon dull or stupid horses, and he likes a horse capable 
of making the round trip in a day. In motion the Per- 
cheron appears best at a trot, some individuals of the 
breed showing considerable speed for horses so large. 
He is often found too short in the pastern and too 
straight in the shoulder to appear well at the walk, and 
some have a way of going too wide behind, to move 
with greatest ease and Avithout friction. They are 
about the average of the other breeds in fecundity, and 
perhaps slightly longer lived than some others. Their 
smooth legs are generally found free of those sores, 
such as trouble those breeds with more hairy legs. 
More fancy geldings have been found with Percheron 
blood dominant than of any other. This is especially 
true when there is a dash of British blood present to 
increase the bone. 

220. Percheron Defects. The worst defect of the 
Percheron as a true drafter, is found in the large num- 
ber of small individuals, and the tendency to small 
bone. This is even noticeable in many of the prize win- 
ning families. The want of more bone causes many of 
them to (juickly l^eeome unsound in their hocks and 
fetlocks when made to do hard work. The table in this 
chapter upon that subject makes a sorry showing for 
the Percheron. Although many of them were yet 
young, out of 59,160 Percheron work horses, 44 per 
cent were already unsound. It is impossible to build a 
horse of 1,800 pounds upon legs intended for a horse 
to weigh only 1,200 pounds. Upon this point the breed- 
ers of Percherons in this country have need to take 
notice, lest they be compelled to go outside the breed 



210 STUDIES IN HOKSE I5UEED1NG 

in the near fnture for new blood with which to build 
up a breed of real draft horses. 

221. Percheron Politics. This condition of affairs 
has been In-onght about by what might well be called 
the politics of the Percheron industry. In founding- the 
Percheron stud book of France (the work of Ameri- 
cans) the only horse of draft size and conformation in 
that country (the present Boulanais) was denied the 
privilege of that register. Besides the few in control of 
the registers in this country have influenced the indus- 
try and all the horse shows of any considerable impor- 
tance to such an extent, that little horses with small 
bone yet flashy appearance have been placed above 
many individuals of real merit. It is no pleasant task 
to be compelled to record such nuitters, but when deal- 
ers and importers will price blue ribbon winners $500 
below their other horses shown in the same class but 
winning no place, it is quite time for the true breeder 
to begin to do a little thinking upon his own account. 
I have spent much time in tracing high class geldings 
back from the market where they would sell from $350 
to $500 each, to the place where they had been sired by 
stallions unknown beyond their innnediate locality,but 
always stallions of great draft merit. One of the con- 
ditions which ought to cause our judges of draft horses 
to do a little careful observing and thinking is, no 
where in this country can any of the best known show 
stallions in the Percheron breed be found producers of 
high class ton geldings. The echo for more and more high 
class geldings of a ton to 2,200 pouiuls weight is heard 
rolling over the continent from Boston to San Fran- 
cisco. One mav attend sale after sale and the Perch- 



THE BREEDS 211 

eron mares offered will for the most part run from 
1,500 to 1,700 pounds, and with scarcely enough bone 
for that weight. The importer is flooding the country 
with a small light boned stallion, with not enough size 
in some instances to draw an express wagon. With 
such a condition confronting us, where are these ton 
geldings to come from? There is but one answer, from 
the other breeds. The Percheron importer has never 
shown any interest in the American breeder, furthei' 
than to relieve him of his surplus cash. He has yet to 
show any civic pride in the way of bettering, either the 
Percheron industry or the general welfare of his coun- 
try. His supreme effort in gaining and keeping control 
of the industry, coupled with his remarkable greed for 
money, will yet be the means of putting the Percheron 
horse out of commission. When viewed from the slaud- 
point of the drafter, little if any improvement has been 
made during the past twenty-five years. A large'- per 
cent of good draft specimens were found among the 
early importations of the breed into this country t.'ian 
are found among those coming now. 

222. Graft. Another force which is working much 
injury to the Percheron industry in this country, is 
that of dishonesty and graft. Go where one mav 
throughout the breeding districts of this country, and 
he will hear the same mutterings, the same expressions 
of a desire to have a change for the better. All tiiii 
noise and smoke is not for nothing. It means more 
than most of us are willing to admit. Nor is all this 
dishonesty upon this side of the Atlantic. No wher^ in 
all the world can dealers in breeding horses be found 
with a more undeveloped sense of honor than in France. 



212 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

With a large majority of these French dealers, a cer- 
tificate of breeding means nothing but a eonvenie.ice in 
making a sale. To them a pedigree is but a joke. Over 
there certificates of breeding are things to be juggled 
with, to please men's fancies. Nivernais stallions are 
sent to this country with Pereheron certificates. The 
certificate of one horse is sent with another. One of 
the prize winning mares at the 1909 shows has been 
sold to two Americans, but the mare is still in France. 
Another winning third place at one of the leading 
shows of France has been sold to four Americans, and 
still the mare remains in France. At least her certifi- 
cate was in the hands of her original owner on March 
1, 1910. This would be regarded as pretty good evi- 
dence that the mare was not far away. When all these 
things are known, it is enough to force a smile from an 
intelligent man, when he hears people talking about 
the breeding of an imported Pereheron. 

These things are not written to help some other 
breed, for it is well to know that the writer is breeding 
Percherons only. Nor is it written to injure any one 
or any industry. I am many times each month asked 
concerning these things, besides receiving letters from 
all parts of the country every week containing ques- 
tions upon this subject. I take it that the people have 
a right to know the truth. At considerable expense to 
myself I have gathered much evidence of value to the 
breeders of this great breed, only a hint as it were, be- 
ing given in this chapter. When all has been said the 
same forces will be found at work in France, that one 
finds here. It is the dealer in both countries, rather 
than the breeder, that is doing this irregular work. 



THE BREEDS 



213 




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sxrniES IX horsk ishekdixg 



There are a few breeding estahlishments in France pre- 
sided over by men of the strictest integrity. There are 
thousands of breeders in the TTnited States, than whom 
no men living possess a higher or truer sense of honor 
and it is to these rather than the dealer that the future 
of every breeding industry in this country must be en- 
trusted. 




Figure 58. A two year old STiire colt. Note the size and 
quality of hock and hind leg. Such legs can not be made 
to go wrong. 



223. The Shire. In size and bone, actual measure- 
ment, the Shire is the largest of all breeds. He has 
done more than any horse or breed of horses in this 
country in the production of rugged horses with plenty 
of bone. Many of the high priced geldings produced 
in this country, although accredited to some of the 
other breeds, owe their great size and abundance of 



THE BREEDS 217 

bone to the blood of this breed. When mated with 
small mares, especially mares of very small bone, he 
will produce a larger, more rugged foal than any other 
sire. However, his bone is slightly coarser, and he has 
more hair upon the legs than any other breed, an ob- 
jection from the viewpoint of this country which can 
not be overcome. His disposition is good, yet somewhat 
headstrong or selfwilled. In the language of the En- 
glishman, "He has a good deal of powder in his eye." 
His walk is excellent, both as to speed and the way of 
going. As a work horse he is among the best, always 
giving evidence of his great power when put to the 
test. 

The Shire does not endure long shipping as well as 
some breeds, and rarely does as well in this country 
the first year after his arrival here from his native land 
as in the years to follow. The Shire is not as fecund 
as the other breeds. This I regard as the fault of the 
English breeder, rather than of the breed itself. The 
Englishman does not take kindly to masculinity in a 
stallion. This has caused him to select the more femi- 
nine type of Shires for his breeding stallions. Contin- 
uing this practice for many generations has resulted in 
fixing a type of stallions very deficient in masculinity. 
He is also deficient in muscle at the fore arm, gaskin, 
and upon the shoulder. The Shire stallion has not been 
worked in his native land for many generations, and 
he is becoming more deficient in muscle every genera- 
tion. The American bred Shire is a better horse in re- 
spect of this, as he is given more pasture to grow in, 
besides being worked more here than in England. The 
Shire bred in this country has much less hair upon the 



218 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDIXG 

legs than those imported. This is especially true of 
those bred in the west at high altitudes. I know of one 
herd in Wyoming, all of their ancestors being English 
bred, yet these horses are quite free of hair the second 
generation from imported stock. At the same time 
they have increased in size and muscular development. 
The color of the Shire does not differ from that of the 
Clydesdale, bay and brown, badly marked with white 
being the colors most frequently seen. 

224. The Suifolk. This breed is found in this coun- 
try in smaller numbers than any other. His native land 
is Eastern England. His color is always a shade of 
chestnut and in transmitting his color he is very pre- 
potent. In longevity they have no equal, and in fe- 
cundity they excel over all the breeds. I have seen 
mares of this breed in England that were regular 
breeders, when well up in the twenties. I notice the 
same is true of them in this country. I doubt if a mare 
of this breed ever reaches an age when she is not a 
regular breeder. I have never known a stallion of this 
breed being sterile in the least degree. The Suffolk is 
the most docile of all the breeds, yet not as intelligent 
as he might be. A tendency to wildness or nervousness 
is never observed within the breed. In quality of bone 
they are slightly better than the other draft breeds. In 
conformation they have the straightest croup and best 
top line of all the draft breeds. They are good feeders, 
with a deep body, and endure shipping and hard work, 
the equal of any horse in the world. A tendency to 
thickness or fullness of the hock is noticeable in some 
of them. He has the least hair upon the legs of any 
draft horse known, differing from the other British 



THE BEEEDS 



219 




Q 






220 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

breeds in this respect. Many individuals of this breed 
are below the size now wanted for draft purposes. This 
is their worst defect as a true drafter. 

225. A Comparative Test of Bone of the five breeds 
of draft horses, in comparison with the bone of a thor- 
oughbred stallion, one that had made good both upon 
the race track and in the stud, makes an interesting 
study. The bone of this stallion in fineness of texture 
would compare favorably with ivory. Excepting one 
mare in the Suffolk class, the tests were made with the 
bones of stallions, and all were imported. The bone of 
the mare did not differ from that of the stallion of her 
breed. Only two animals were used in the Suffolk class 
while many were used in all the others, the averages 
being used in this table. The same sized horses were 
used, all weighing close to the ton mark, excepting the 
Suffolks, which were slightly smaller. I found the 
same ratio existed in all the breeds between the pres- 
sure and gravity tests, so only comparative weights 
will be used here, that of the thoroughbred being given 
as one hundred, the basis of the test. 

A cubic inch of bone from the Belgians weighed 62.6 
per cent as much as that of the Thoroughbred. The 
Clydesdales 61.2; the Percherons 63.3; the Shire 57.9 
and the Suffolks 68.7. The above table teaches us that 
in the quality of bone, but little difference is found be- 
tween Belgian, Clydesdale, and Percheron, while the 
Shire is some below and the Suffolk considerably above. 
The Suffolks had a slight advantage in the test, in be- 
ing slightly smaller than the others. 

226. The Distinguishing Marks or Traits of the sev- 
eral draft breeds is of interest to many. The greatest 



THE ISKIiEUS 



221 




LSi 



222 STUDIES IX HORSK BREEDING 

interest is shown in being able to always classify Bel- 
gians, Percherons and the two most numerous British 
breeds, Clydesdale and Shires. While the Belgians 
have a few^ minor characteristics not usually found in 
the other breeds, the thing by which he can always be 
known is the head. No other breed ever has a Belgian 
head. The shortness of head and ear, the latter coming 
out of the side of the head, the shortness of space from 
eye to ear and want of fidlness at this point, are all 
marks belonging to the Belgian only. If one will take 
a good look at figures 52 and 53, he will see nothing if 
not Belgian character. 

The Pereheron has much about him that can not be 
found in any other breed. In the first place he has a 
head that can not be found in any other draft breed. 
In the width between the eyes, and the distance from 
eye to ear one finds something truly remarkable. The 
space between the eyes and ears of the Pereheron is 
always full and prominent. In other words, he has a 
larger brain space or cavity than any other. The crest 
of the Pereheron is unlike that of any other breed in 
being better defined and more masculine. In the mus- 
cular development of shoulder, fore arm and gaskin, 
the Pereheron is found at the other extreme, when com- 
pared with the Shire. The Pereheron is always muscu- 
lar, while the Shire is deficient in muscle. In his ner- 
vous energy and the way of going, the Pereheron shows 
more blood than any other draft horse. The hair upon 
the legs will be discussed later. 

The Shire and Clydesdale will for the purpose of this 
description be regarded as one breed. So far as breed 
character goes, the Shire is almost the opposite of the 



THE BREEDS 



22:'. 




224 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

Perclieron, and this subject is now being discussed 
with reference to stallions only. The Shire has little 
or no crest, many of the stallions having- every appear- 
ance of a gelding, and that muscular development of 
shoulder, fore arm and gaskin already referred to is 
wanting. Herein lies the distinguishing difference be- 
tween the Percheron and Shire. We are now assuming 
the color to be the same, for one can find bays with 
strip and four white pasterns in France. Regarding 
the hair upon the legs, it is not always safe to assume 
that every horse with hairy legs is of Shire origin. 
Many Percherons of the old Boulanais type wear as 
much hair upon the legs as man,y individuals in the 
Shire breed. As a rule the Percheron is quite free from 
long hair upon the legs, while the Shires are famous 
for this one thing. For all this, some of the best Per- 
cheron stallions ever brought to this country from 
France were as hairy at the legs as many Shires, and 
it is a well established fact that the best and heaviest 
geldings ever sired by Percheron stallions, were sired 
by these great big Percherons with much long hair 
upon the legs. Upon the other hand there are quite a 
few Shires coming to this country from England with 
very little hair upon the legs. This is not the type pop- 
ular in England, yet they are there just the same. I 
emphasize this point, only because there are a few mis- 
informed men who believe all Percherons have the legs 
of a Thoroughbred, while all horses wearing long hair 
at the legs must be of British origin. When we speak 
of draft horses, the best Percheron breeding establish- 
ments upon this continent will invariably be found with 
horses wearing long hair at the legs, and the more hair 



THE BREEDS 



225 




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to C 



w "^ 



226 STUDIES IN HORSE BuKEDING 

one finds there, the more bone, the more substance and 
the more size will he also find in the horses there. Sp 
far as hair upon the legs is concerned, one shonld look 
a little higher up. If the fore arm and gaskin is defi- 
cient in muscle, I would feel safe in classing the horse 
as a Shire. However long the hair might be, if the 
stallion has a well defined crest, coupled with a good 
muscular development and the other Percheron charac- 
teristics, I would not hesitate to class him with that 
breed. There are others who are inclined to classify 
every horse with an arched nose, or great fullness be- 
low the eyes, with the British breeds. Again many Per- 
cherons are found with similar heads, and again one 
usually finds them among the stallions producing large 
horses. Such a head, when narrow between the eyes 
is more likely to be a Shire, but when wide between the 
eyes it is more likely to be a Percheron. My oavu obser- 
vations extending over many years make it possible for 
me to sum up the whole matter in one sentence. The 
more a Percheron resembles a Shire, the more certai i 
he will be of siring ton geldings. 

227. The Heavy Harness or Park Horse. This class 
is made up or filled so far as market requirements are 
concerned by the Hackney more than by all other 
breeds together. The Hackney is a native of England, 
and possesses more blood than any other horse of Eu- 
rope used for harness purposes. The conformation of 
the Hackney is more nearly correct for high action than 
that of any other horse. The well nigh perfect flexing 
of knee and hock of the best actors within this breed 
is a beautiful sight, yet he is nothing if not a rich man's 



THE 15REKDS 



227 




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228 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

horse. Bay, brown, chestnut and black are the princi- 
pal colors of this breed. 

The coach breeds, so-called, both French and German, 
are sometimes bred in this country for the purpose of 
supplying the demand for heavy harness horses. Few- 
can show the action required for this purpose. Theso 
breeds were produced to be used for military purposes 
in their native countries, and have been introduced 
into this country as the result of the American commer- 
cial spirit. I have spent both time and money investi- 
gating this subject but have yet to learn of a district 
in the United States that has been benefitted by the 
Coach horse of either country. The French Coach car- 
ries the more blood, and is the more uniform breeder. 
]\Iost of the get of Coach stallions reach the markets 
of the country as some kind of a misfit, without the 
size and weight to perform the heavy work of the coun- 
try, and with insufficient action for high class heavy 
harness horses. 

228. The Light Harness Horse. This class comes 
principally from the Standard bred trotter, a breed of 
American origin. This horse is too well known to need 
more than a mention. Some excellent specimens are 
to be found within this breed for light harness driving, 
being both intelligent and speed3^ It is the larger 
specimens of the breed that are used for this purpose. 

Recently the federal government has shown an in- 
terest in the light horse industry, and are aiding by a 
breeding experiment, blending the blood of the nearly 
extinct Morgan family with that of the better types of 
Standard blood. 

229. The Five Gaited Horse. This horse is a pro- 



THE BREEDS 



229 




230 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

duct of the rough part of the Southern states where 
the saddle horse was a necessity, and much intelligence 
has been used in his development. He is the result of 
crossing Standard bred pacing mares with Thorough- 
bred Stallions, and demonstrates what can be done by 
cross breeding when intelligently done. He is strictly 
an American product and he has come to stay. For the 
breeder who has a fancy for a warm bred horse, and is 
capable of developing him to the highest limit, the Five 
Gaited horse offers a lucrative field. He will always 
be in demand in our own large cities, as well as in his 
native southland. 

230. The Thoroughbred. This horse, the original 
of all blood and speed needs no mention in this work. 
His part in the world's work has been recorded in its 
poetry, its fiction, as well as in its history. 

231. The Shetland Pony- This is a member of the 
equine family worthy of brief mention, as few are more 
profitable to breed than the Shetland. The demand in 
this country is now greater than the supply. The cost 
of producing a Shetland pony is but little more than 
for a large sheep. Well broken, he sells readily for 
$100 to $200 in all the large cities of this country. He 
is a native of the Shetland Islands, to the north of 
Scotland. In earlier times he was used principally in 
the coal mines and to some extent by fishermen along 
the coast. His food was always of the poorest and 
scantiest supply. The climate was of the fiercest for 
either man or beast, being both cold and wet. He has 
survived these things and will live under every known 
condition of climate or food. In this country he meets 



THE BREKDS 



231 



a new condition, both as to his needs and his work. In 
a conntry where food is plenty he is always fat, while 
his only work in this country has been the companion- 
ship of children. 

Some trouble has been experienced in this country in 







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ffl(; ^•,<aa- ., ". i>5 


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Figure 66. A pair of "Shelties." 



breeding them. This is wholly the result of too much 
feed. They soon become too fat to breed well, unless 
used more than is usually the practice. Most of the 
Shetlands brought to this country are bred in the north 
of Scotland. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



JACKS AND JENNETS. 

232. The Industry. The mule breeding industry 
of the United States has grown to be a very important 
business, in many parts of the country. This has made 
the breeding of good jacks a very lucrative industry. 
For the truly good ones, the demand is larger than the 
supply. The best mules produced in this country are 
sired by Mammoth jacks, a breed of American origin. 
While all the blood lines of the Mammoth jacks anu 
jennets can be traced back to a European source, yet 
in their present state of perfection, they are strictly the 
product of American skill and intelligence. 

233. Royal Mammoth. The Mammoth jack is the 
result of the blending of the blood of jacks from Malta, 
Catalonia and ^lajorca. The name is borrowed from 
imported Royal ^lammoth, a jack regarded by the best 
breeders of this country, to be the best specimen ev-r 
brought here from Europe. 

A continuous efifort has been made, and a fairly 
united one, by all the breeders in fixing the color to 
black, with light shading around the nose and upo?:j 
the under side of the body. At the present time only 
occasionally does one revert back to blue or other oii* 
color. 



JACKS AND JENNETS 



233 




o 



Ml 



fa 



234 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

In figure 67 can be seen a gronp of jennets and their 
jack colts owned by W. H. Brown, of Calumet Valley 
Stock Farm, Clarksville, Mo. The one marked No. 1, 
is Qneen of Scots, No. 529. She won first in yearling 
class at St. Louis Exposition in 1904. Also sweepstakes 
as best jennet any age at Missouri State Fair in 1909. 
Fannie Pitman No. 391, is marked with a 2. Mohawk 
Queen, No. 525, is marked with a 3. 

Figure 68 is that of the four-year-old Mammoth jack, 
Eagle, No. 3797, one of the truly good jacks of the 
country. This jack is owned by "W. C. Martin, Pleas- 
ant Hill, ]Mo. Note the extreme vitality of this jack, 
as indicated by the large heart girth, as well as thick- 
ness of the shoulders. 

234. Hinnies. Crossing the jennet with a stallion, 
produces a hinny. This cross is now a common one in 
many parts of the southwestern states. The hinny is 
so like the mule, that only a few men can tell the one 
from another. They are usually small, being used 
in the coal mines and for light delivery work. 

The demand for mules combining size and constitu- 
tion is a growing one. Formerly the so-called quality 
mule was the one in greatest demand. This mule was 
rather tall for its size, with considerable energy and 
action, Init rather deficient in constitution. It was the 
produce of a mare possessing much warm blood. At 
the present time quality means size, plenty of bone, 
large heart girth, with every evidence of good consti- 
tution, more than at any time in the past. Such a 
mule can be produced, only by the use of some draft 
lilood in the mare. 

235. Where Mules are Bred. While the breeding and 



JACKS AND JENNETS 



235 



ayft jljgl^^^^jl^,' '• '"^ i*-;'^'': .4i3^.^^ &••» « (^ ^f 


^H^HK^^H|[^^^Hfk E'l ' 


,;. ;; ^t/l'i; i^^P^^'^l^Hj 




^•ffl"' .^ ■ ^^ 


L 'IJ^K 


P-. ' ■ . 




V 


■aiHLV ..<^ 




i' 


' 3Bi 


N^^H*^"^ 


P' 


-' 1 i M^flH 


1. 


i ■■ 


nii^k 




' ■^■"■•■' 







Figure 68. The mammoth jack. Eagle, No. 3797. Owned 
by W. C. Martin, Pleasant Hill, Mo. 



236 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

growing: of mules is now carried on quite extensively in 
several of the central western states, yet it is done in 
rather a small way so far as each farm is concerned. 
In this respect it does not differ from horse breeding 
in the same states and districts. Only in the southwest 
and parts of the west are mules bred upon an extensive 
scale. In some parts of the southwest there are ranches 
where 200 to 300 mules are foaled every year. There 
is one ranch in Texas upon which 1100 mares were 
bred to jacks during the season of 1910. The capsule 
method of breeding is practiced upon this ranch, and 
the 1100 mares were served with four jacks. 

236. Breeding for Jacks. There are several states 
in which the production of jacks for breeding purposes 
is an industry of considerable importance. However, 
the breeding of jacks has its difficulties and troubles 
as do other lines of breeding. One of these is a ten- 
dency of jennets to be wanting in fecundity even more 
than mares. The trouble experienced by many jack 
breeders in this particular is considerable. During the 
heat period the temperature of the jennet is more 
likely than not to be too high. This is now being over- 
come by breeding the jennet by a capsule service just 
as the heat period has passed. 

237. Jack Foals. Another drawback to the breed- 
ing of jacks is the death rate among the foals. A jack 
foal is not as easily reared as a horse foal. Pneumonia 
carries away many of them in the early season, and 
indigestion, rectal hernia and hemorrhoids take away 
many others. 



JACKS AM) JK.XNETS 



237 




0; ^ 



O 1) 

d .S 

o -' 



0) ce 



= 3 

IB C 

"9 ic 






3 « 



CHAPTER XVII. 



CROSS BREEDING. 

238. General Principles. During the past two 
years, as many inquiries have reached me upon the 
subject of cross breeding as any other. Some are not 
very explicit as to what they wish to know, but I take 
it that most of them are interested in crossing very 
small mares with large stallions. The concensus of 
opinion is adverse to this, but it is either based upon 
a want of experience, or else the experience was with 
coarse, unbalanced stallions wanting in quality. I mated 
a large number of small mares, weighing from 800 to 
900 pounds for five consecutive seasons, with an im- 
ported Percheron stallion weighing from 1950 to 2100 
l^ounds, according to conditions of flesh. The result 
was a uniform lot of well balanced foals, maturing in- 
to marketable horses with an average weight of 1350 
pounds. There was not a badly proportioned horse 
in the lot. This stallion was evenly balanced and well 
proportioned, possessing quality in a high degree. The 
breeding was all done by the use of capsules. 

239. Mating Ponies with Stallions. For the sake of 
the experiment I have mated Indian pony mares weigh- 
ing only 535 and 545 pounds Avith the stallion above 



CROSS BREEDING 239 

referred to, and the resulting foals were good. They 
developed into 1100 ])onnd horses, well balanced and 
well proportioned. 

240. Mating- Small Mares with a Belgian Stallion. 

In the extreme western part of Nel)raska there is oiie 
ranch where a large nnml)er of 900 pound mares have 
been mated for five years with an imported Belgian 
stallion, weighing around 2200 pounds, the capsule sys- 
tem being employed in making the service. This spring 
two car loads of these horses (four years old) were 
shipped to Pennsylvania and sold at an average of 
$212.50 each. The average weight of these four year 
old colts when loaded was 1430 pounds each, and every 
one a good one, well balanced and well proportioned. 

241. Coarse Unbalanced Stallions do not Mate well 
with any Mare. A score of such crosses which have 
proved successful when quality stallions are used, can 
be named for every one that has been a failure. It can 
be readily understood that a stallion wanting in cpiality, 
coarse and unbalanced would not cross well with any 
mare however large she may be. Even when such stal- 
lions are mated with large mares, if observed critically, 
the foals will be found wanting in cpiality and balance, 
quite as much as those out of the small mares. 

242. The Breeds Differ in Eegard to such Crosses. 

As regards the crossing of small mares with large stal- 
lions, it makes some difference about the breed to which 
the stallion belongs. The British breeds do not give 
as good results in violent crossing, as do the Belgian 
and Percheron stallions. I have frequently seen horses 
with large heads and legs, but ])odies small, resulting 



240 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

from mating- very small mares with stallions of British 
breeding. 

243. Crossing the Breeds or mixing the blood of 
pure bred horses is quite another thing, and should 
never be undertaken by any but the most intelligent 
breeders. That this can be done advantageously, we al- 
ready have proof. In crossing blood it matters not so 
much about the breeds as it does the types. Mating ani- 
mals of two breeds, but of the same general type, will 
give better results than mating two animals of the same 
breed, but of widely different types. To put it in an- 
other way, mating two animals of two draft breeds will 
give better results than mating two animals, one a 
drafter, the other belonging to the harness breeds. 

244. The Saddle Horse is an illustration of this 
thought. It was produced by mating Standard mares 
with pacing gait, with Thoroughbred stallions. To be- 
gin with these breeds were of similar type, and the 
cross resulted in a most pronounced improvement, for 
the purpose for which the cross bred product was in- 
tended. The gaits have been secured from the original 
mares from which the breed originated, while the sym- 
metry, style of carriage and intelligence have been 
transmitted from the Thoroughbred. 

245. Recrossing Breeds. The stallion shown in fig- 
ure 70, is the result of a breeding experiment with draft 
blood. This experiment began with a grey imported 
Shire mare. She was mated with a black imported 
Belgian stallion, resulting in a grey filly. When this 
filly was old enough she was mated with a grey im- 
ported Percheron stallion, resulting in the stallion 
shown in figure 70. It is claimed by most writers that 



CROSS RREKIlIXfi 



241 




Figure 70. A re-cross bred stallion and possessing the 
blood of the Belgian, Percheron and Shire breeds. 



242 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

sires produced by cross breeding will not prove pre- 
potent breeders ; that their foals will not be uniform 
as regards any quality, color, size or form. The stal- 
lion above referred to is owned by a colony of Rus- 
sians in South Dakota, and enjoys the distinction of 
having produced more geldings selling for three hund- 
red dollars or more, than any stallion ever owned in 
that state. His get are remarkable for their uniformity 
of size, combined with quality, and 85 per cent of them 
are grey. The number of ton geldings sired by him, 
and out of mares weighing only 1500 to 1600 pounds, 
is simply remarkable. 

Here we have a re-cross bred stallion, that is one 
the result of twice crossing, and possessing the blood 
of three draft breeds. The individuals composing his 
immediate ancestry were quite uniform, although be- 
longing to three breeds. A wider difference in type 
could be found within any one of the three breeds, 
which again calls out the statement, that it is not so 
much a matter of breed, as it is of type. 

246. The Percheron and Shire Cross. We have an- 
other illustration in the result of crossing breeds, in a 
stallion owned for eleven years at Randolph, Nebraska. 
This stallion was out of an imported Percheron mare, 
and sired by an imported Shire stallion, both dam and 
sire being good individuals, possessing great size and 
the best draft conformation. The dam of this stallion 
was a dark grey in color, while the sire was a blue roan. 
More than 90 per cent of the get of this horse were 
blue roan or grey, and this one stallion made Randolph 
the first primary market in the United States, in the 
production of high class geldings. The geldings sired 



CROSS RREEDING 243 

by this stallion mature to 2200 pounds, and have sold 
in the open markets of this country up to five hundred 
dollars each. 

247. The Mares of this Cross are also Producers of 
High Class Foals. Nor has the good done the horse 
breeding industry at Randolph, by this stallion, ended 
in the production of these high class geldings. His 
mares are proving the best producers of geldings ever 
owned in that district. It is a fact admitted by all 
breeders of pure bred draft horses, that no pure bred 
mares can be found in that district, which can equal 
as producers of quality, these grade mares sired by 
that cross bred stallion. 

248. Adhering to Type. These things are not writ- 
ten to encourage any one to embark in cross breeding 
horses, for not one in a thousand would succeed if 
they undertook it. When we remember that all draft 
bred horses have a common origin, it is not very violent 
crossing when we cross any or all of them. The thing 
to guard against is in crossing types. It is because of 
this that so few succeed in breeding pure bred horses. 
Only a few men seem to understand that by using a 
stallion of one type for one cross, then one of distinctly 
another type for the succeeding cross, must necessar- 
ily result in failure, and this is what most of our breed- 
ers are doing. To succeed in breeding, one must have 
a standard or type in mind, and then breed to it. It 
will not matter so much al)out anything else, if the 
standard or type is strictly adhered to. 

249. Violent Crossing has Proved a Failure. In 
crossing types I have never known of any good result- 
ing, when carried bevond the first cross. In INIissouri 



244 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

I know of several stallions standing for service, the 
stallions being the result of crossing pure bred draft 
stallions upon Standard mares. The get of such cross 
bred stallions have very little value, seldom two being 
alike in any respect. It is such violent crossing that 
has given cross breeding its bad reputation. 

250, Mendel's Law of Heredity is the best test of 
the good or ill effects of cross breeding. When the 
ancestry of two animals is known, their produce can 
be foretold by this law, to nearly a mathematical cer- 
tainty. One could take a grey mare of one breed, 
whose type or conformation throughout all her past 
ancestry was the same as that of a grey stallion of 
another breed, and their produce would be just as 
certain to possess the grey color and conformation of 
the original pair, as if that pair had been of one breed. 
This one sentence covers the entire field of cross breed- 
ing. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 

251. Brain and Nerve Stimulation. To speak of 
the phrenology or mentality of the horse to some men 
is but to provoke a smile, yet these same men when 
questioned are willing to admit that value in a horse 
represents something more than bone and muscle. Bone 
and muscle would be of little value, if there was no 
stimulation for the action of these parts. This stimu- 
lation is but the function of the brain, and is carried 
to every part and every muscle of the body, by means 
of the spinal cord and its many branches. 

252. Nervous Energy. The amount of nervous en- 
ergy a horse possesses, will determine the ease with 
which he performs his work. 

It will be noticed by any one at all observing, that 
no two horses perform their work with the same de- 
gree of exhaustion resulting. Some appear to do their 
work with a freedom and willingness unknown to oth- 
ers, and yet show no signs of exhaustion ; while others 
must be urged in order to get them to do their work, 
and yet they always appear to be exhausted. This is 
wholly a condition of the nervous organization of the 
horse. Then again, some horses perform any task 



246 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEUING 




Figure 71. The brain of the horse. 



THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 247 

given them in an agreeable frame of mind, while others 
will do nothing except under protest. The one is a 
willing helper, the other surly and obstinate. In this 
particular they do not differ from the human subject. 

253. Comparative Anatomy of Brain. A study of 
the comparative anatomy of the brain, discloses the 
fact that in all the faculties of the base of the brain, 
there is little difference between man and many ani- 
mals. Animals must eat as well as man, hence we find 
the faculty of appetite developed in both. Both must 
defend and protect themselves from all forms of in- 
jury and we find the faculties of combativeness, des- 
truction and secretion common to both. The desire 
to mate, and the love of young are common to both 
man and the horse and we find these faculties developed 
in both. The organs of form ad locality are needed by 
the horse as well as man, and we find these faculties de- 
veloped in a high degree. The horse must have the or- 
gan of form, to aid him in seeing in the night, as well 
as to be able to see and distinguish between forms seen 
at any time. The organ of locality is just as necessary 
to him, that he may know and remember locations 
and directions. A horse never forgets a place he has 
once been to, and most horses if taken away from 
home for a long distance and by circuitous windings, 
will return by the shortest route, if given their liberty. 
I know of a Pawnee pony mare that w^as ridden from 
eastern Nebraska, southeasterly into and through Mis- 
souri, then in a northerly direction to near Davenport, 
Iowa. From the latter place she broke away from her 
keeper and made back directly to Nebraska, and her 
numerous family, reaching her old home three months 



248 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



after she was stolen. She was traced over this route, 
but those following her were always sufficiently be- 
hind to make the capture of the thief impossible. It 
was known that the pony had secured her freedom 
and was on the way back, two weeks before she 
reached home. 




Figure 72. Tho human brain. 



254. Quality of the Brain. The brain of the horse 
is of better quality than that of any other animal. 
While the brain of the horse is relatively smaller than 
the brain of some other animals, yet in no other ani- 



THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 



249 



mal can so fine a texture of brain be found. It is the 
texture or quality of the brain, quite as much as its 
size that denotes mental quality. Some horsemen have 
held that a horse must be very unintelligent because 
of his small brain, while as a matter of fact few animals, 
if any, are capable of manifesting such rare intelli- 
gence as the horse. All other things being equal, size 
would be indicative of power, but throughout all Na- 
ture, quality counts for as much as size. A large tim- 
ber of pine would be stronger than a small one, yet a 




Figure 73. A sectional view of tlie cranium of tlie liorse, 
showing the brain cavity. 



small piece of good hickory may be stronger than 
either. An organic structure of high quality, indicates 
a like mental quality. 

255. Temperaments. Quality of the brain texture 
is analogous to the temperaments, which are alike in 
man and the horse. The nervous temperament is of 
greatest interest to the horseman. It is the nervous 
temperament developed to a high degree, that gives the 
horse that quality we call stamina. This is but "bot- 



250 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



torn." It is also the intelligent horse in which we find 
the nervous temperament predominating. Possessing 
this temperament should not he construed to mean a 




Figure 74. Front view of the liead of an intelligent horse. 
Note the great width between the eyes, and the extreme dis- 
tance from eye to ear. 

horse the reverse. It means one having perfect control 
over both temper and actions. Breeds can be recog- 
nized quite readily by their temperament. The warm 



THE PHREXOLOGY OF THE HORSE 



251 



bred horses, such as the harness and saddle horses are 
nsually found with the nervous temperament predom- 
inating. The Percherons possess this temperament to 
a higher degree than any other of the draft breeds. 
256. Vital Temperament. The vital temperament 




Pigur 75. A side view of tlie liead of a horse possessing 
remarli^able intelligence. 



is found developed in the Belgian more than in any 
other breed. The vital temperament supplies vitality 
to the organs. It is the source of all vital energy, and 
sustains the entire animal economy. Its predominance 



252 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 





THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 253 

gives us a horse with a deep, well filled body, with a 
tendency to take on flesh rapidly. It is from among 
horses with this temperament well developed, that we 
find most of our dull, sluggish, and stupid horses. 




Figure 77. Front view of tlie head of an intelligent colt. 

257. The Motive Temperament. It is this temper- 
ament that results from the organs of motion being 
well developed. This temperament is indicated by 
the development of the bones and muscles of the horse. 
This temperament is more prominent in the Shire than 



254 STUUIES IX HORSK ISHEKDING 

any other breed, while the Clydesdale combines the 
motive and nervous temperaments in a remarkable 
degree. We find most of our self willed horses among 
those with large motive, and small nervous tempera- 
ment. 




Figure 78. Front view of the head of a stallion inclined 
to a timid disposition. This is indicated by the narrowness 
of the head. 

258. A Well Balanced Organism. It is possible to 
have the temperaments well balanced. So far as draft 
horses are concerned, the better balance foimd exist- 



THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 



255 



iiig- between the temperaments the more valuable the 
horse. In the Belgian as a breed, we find the nervous 
temperament poorly developed. The Clydesdale is 
more deficient in the vital temperament than any other, 
while the Percheron as a breed is found deficient most- 
ly in the motive temperament. A well balanced organ- 
ism can be found more often among the better Perch- 
erons, than in anv other lireed. 




Figure 79. Side view of the head shown in figure 78. The 
full or arched form of face denotes a self-willed disposition. 



259. The Comparative Anatomy of the Brain of the 

horse can be studied by a comparison of figure 71, 
with that of 72. In figure 71 can be seen the brain of 
the horse, while figure 72 shows the human brain. The 
greatest evidence of brain power, is in the convolu- 
tions or folds of that organ. It will be noticed that 



256 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



these convolutions are as great in the case of the horse, 
as in that of man. The only difference being in the 
case of man we find many convolutions not present in 
the brain of the horse. This corresponds with the 




Figure 80. Front view of ttie head of an unintelligent 
brute. Note the depression between the eyes. 



phrenology of the two subjects. The social, aspiring, 
moral and most of the intellectual faculties found in 
man, are wanting in the horse. The skull of man is 
well filled with brain, while that of the horse is not, 



THK PHRENOLOGY OK THE HORSE 



257 



as shown in fit;iire 73. In this figure it will be ob- 
served that it is in the posterior cavity of the skull 
(cranium), that the l^rain is lodged. Viewed from the 
top and front we find the skull composed of three 
bones ; parietal, frontal and nasal. The brain lies un- 
der the frontal bone, for the most part, and gives this 
])iirt of the skull the appearance of being full or de- 




Figure 81. A side view of the liead sliown in figure 80. 
Note the shortness of distance from eye to ear. This horse 
does not possess ordinary brute sense, and few horses are 
seen with so small a brain. 



pressed, as it is large or small. The brain cavity or 
cranium is made greater, also, as the distance from 
orbit to orbit is increased. The brain itself is divisi- 
ble into four chief parts: The cerebrum, forming the 
largest and most anterior jiart of the brain ; the cere- 
belhnn, placed liehind the cerebrum ; the pons Varolii 



258 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

a l)and of nerve matter; and the medulla ()])longata. 
passing between the pons Varolii and the spinal cord. 

260. The Cerebrum the Organ of Intelligence. It is 
with the cerebrum, we have most to do in this chapter. 
Aside from quality, it is the size of the cerebrum that 
gives to the horse his intelligence. This can be de- 
termined by actual measurement of the exterior of the 
skull or head. In figure 74 is shown the head of a 
horse possessing a large brain, as indicated by the 
width between the eyes, and distance from eye to the 
opening of the ear. A horse narrow between the eyes, 
will be found timid as well as wanting in intelligence. 
It is no easy matter to frighten a horse possessing ex- 
treme width between the eyes ; while the horse with 
narrow frontal bone, is always "seeing things." 

261. The Horse of Extreme Intelligence. Figure 75 
is a side view of the head of one of the most intelli- 
gent horses, if not the most intelligent, ever known. 
This horse was an educated one, not in trickery such 
as mesmeric and other tricks of man, but educated to 
do intelligent things. Among other things he could do 
was to be placed in a room by himself, where he would 
put together a set of blocks, forming a figure, which 
could only be formed by one way of arranging the 
blocks. He could open or unfasten any door that could 
be opened by man, without the aid of a key. In fact all 
his work was the work of an intelligent force, in many 
ways possessing the intelligence of the ordinary man. 
The frontal bone of this horse extended two and seven- 
eighths inches anteriorly to the eye, and the distance 
from the center of one eye to the center of the other, 
was eleven inches. I have never been able to find an- 



THE PIIRKXOLOOY OF THE HORSE 259 

other head of the horse, showiiiu' such an ininiense brain 
cavity. This horse was the result of crossing a grac^^' 
Percheron mare with a SadcUe bred stallion. 

262. An Intelligent Head. In figure 76 is shown 
the actual photographic reproductions of side Jmd 
front view of the head of a Percheron stallion, which 
are nothing if not remarkable for brain capacity. This 
stallion measures ten and one-half inches between the 
eyes, nine inches from eye to opening of the ear. and 
thirteen and one-eighth inches from center of the eye, 
diagonally across the opening of the opposite ear. 
The frontal bone of his head extends two and one- 
fourth inches anteriorly to the eye. This stallion has 
been made to make services without a strap of any 
kind upon him, in a yard Avhere ten or a dozen geldings 
and mares were present. The door to his stall can be 
left open, and he will not go out without permission, 
even though many horses are in sight upon the out- 
side. He can be driven anywhere without lines, and 
he will always turn to the right for any vehicle to 
which is hitched a horse, but if he meets an automobile, 
he will give no pai't of the road. 

263. An Intelligent Colt. Figure 77 is the head of 
a colt at thirteen months. The width between the eyes, 
the fulness of frontal bone and distance from eye to 
ear all denote intelligence of a high order. His true 
character does not misrepresent his phrenology, for he 
is a colt of the highest intelligence. One only has to 
show him what is Avant(^d of him. and he is always 
ready to do it. 

264. The Head of a Timid Horse- Figures 78 and 
79 are front and side views of the head of a stallion 



260 STl'DIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

too narrow between the eyes. A horse with such a 
head will always be found timid. His nasal bone is 
full and arched, making the form known as Roman 
nose. This form of nasal bone is always associated 
with self-willed horses, and when found in connection 
with a narrow head, it gives us a horse that will prove 
unsafe to drive. The stallion whose head is shown in 
figure 78 and 79 is timid, will become frightened at 
bridges, vehicles, signs, loose paper and all other un- 
common ol),iects. This is not all, for when so fright- 
ened he will go through a stone wall, or at least try it, 
to get away from the object of his fright. In every 
other respect the disposition of this horse is excellent, 
as might be expected by the bright and prominent eye, 
and erect ear. 

265. The Head of a Stupid Horse. Figures 80 and 
81 are the front and side views of a stallion that scarce- 
ly knows enough to eat when hungry. In figure 80 
note the depression of the frontal bone between the 
eyes, and in figure 81 the shortness of head from eye 
to ear. Seldom is a head seen upon a ton horse with 
so small a lirain cavity, and the disposition of this 
horse does not belie his phrenology. I never saw a 
more stupid brute ; even the ordinary animal instincts 
being poorly developed in liim. 

266. Summary. To summarize, the character of 
the horse can be told by the temperament and brain 
capacity. The former has reference to the quality of 
the brain, the latter to the quantity. The motive tem- 
perament is where the development of the organs of 
motion are greatest. It is in this temperament we find 
the most stubborn and self-willed horses. When this 



THE PHRKNOI.OdY lU' THE HORSE 261 

is balanced with a ^ood nervous temperament we have 
an excellent combination, tiivinsi' ns both force and 
intelligence or quality. 

267. The Vital Temperament is when the vital or- 
gans are greatest in their (k'V('loi)ment. It is in this 
temperament we tind most of our dull, lazy and stupid 
horses. With this temperauK^it dominant we always 
have a good feeder and doer. 

268. The Nervous Temperament is the outward 
manifestation of quality. It is the highest and best 
development of the brain and nerves. It is in this 
temperament we find our most intelligent horses. This 
temperament usually jn-edomiiuites in the trotter, the 
pacer, the saddler and the running horse. It is indi- 
cated by the bright and prominent eye ; the fine hair 
and soft, velvety skin with (pudity in every part. 

269. The Proper Balance of Temperaments. The 
best residts are fomid in the jjroper combination or 
balance of these temperaments. The vital is needed 
to feed and nourish the body. The motive is needed 
to give strength and f(n-ee to every part, while the 
nervous is actually necessary to furnish the stimula- 
tion for action of every bone, and every muscle. In 
figure 47 can be seen an ideal combination of the three 
temperaments, and such a combination as is seldom 
seen in a draft stallion. The deep body, and good 
middle are evidence of vital power. The massive bone 
and great muscular development of motive force ; while 
the great ])rain capacity and (luality in every part show 
a wonderf\d nervous enei'gy. 

270. In the Quantity of Brain, the size of the cavity 
is our onlv guide. This is indicated by the width be- 



262 STUDIES IN HORSK I5KEP:i)ING 

tween the eyes and fulness of same, together with the 
distance from eye to ear. Those wide between the 
ears, are to be watched, for they will be found vicious 
and treacherous. Horses narrow between the eyes 
will be found timid — that is, wanting in courage. The 
wider between the eyes, and the greater the fulness of 
the frontal bone, the greater will be the intelligence. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE SCIENCE OF JUDGING DRAFT HORSES. 

271. Importance of Essential Points. In the judging 
of draft horses, not enough importance has been at- 
tached to the most essential points. A nice top line 
may be pleasing to the eye, yet it adds nothing to the 
utility of the horse. Then again, the trot adds nothing 
in real value to the draft horse, yet much importance 
is attached to this gait by most judges. If a draft 
horse walks right, his trot will be all right, but the 
real drafter is not performing his work at the trot, 
and will seldom have occasion to use that gait. 

272. Need of a Better System. That there is need 
of a better system of judging can not be better shown 
than by referring to the score card now in use. A 
score of 11 is given the perfect fore pastern and hock 
combined, out of a possible 100. In the case of more 
than 100,000 horses reported. 80 per cent of them went 
wrong because of defective fore pastern and hock. In 
the actual test, we find an importance of 80 per cent 
should be attached to these two points, while in theory 
an importance of only 11 per cent is given them. If 
one can find a difference of 19 per cent of a whole be- 
tween theory and fact existing in the case of onlv two 



264 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

parts of the horse, what may we expect when every 
part of the horse is considered. 

273. A Horse is Comparable to a Machine. I am 
probably the only one who has ever attempted to com- 
pare a horse to a machine, constructed for a specific 
pnrpose, and by actual, mechanical tests tried to learn 
his weak parts. I have been carrying on these tests 
for many years. 

274. The Balance of a Horse. The first thing I 
learned was the per cent of weight borne npon each 
set of feet. In many tests of draft horses, I found that 
from 56% to 5914 per cent of the weight was borne 
upon the fore feet. The average for all these tests 
was slightly less than 58 per cent. In the case of the 
Standard bred horse, a greater weight is borne upon 
the fore feet, than any other breed. There is a slight 
difference also, in the several draft breeds, but not 
enough to be of any interest to the student or breeder. 

275. How Energy is Expended. The amount of 
energy expended by each end of a draft horse in mov- 
ing heavy loads I have investigated. In this experi- 
ment horses were used weighing from 1400 to 1900 
pounds. They were made to pull from an exact level, 
scales being used to register the draft. Only a nominal 
difference was registered between the many horses 
used, the average being 71 per cent for the hind legs 
and only 29 per cent by the fore legs. This one line 
of investigation teaches us that the hock is the most 
important jiart of the draft horse, and it also teaches 
us why so many horses go wrong in the hock. 

276. The Proper Set of the Hind Leg. Most draft 
horses are either too straight or too crooked in the 



THE SCIEXCP: of .TUDfilXG DRAFT HORSES 



265 




266 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

hind leg'. A hock set at the proper angle gives more 
power, than when set too far back or too far forward. 
If the hock is correctly set as regards its position to 
the body ; is of proper size and good quality, it will 
never go wrong under any circumstances. In case of 
accident, the bone above or below the hock will break 
before the hock will break or go wrong. 

277. The Different Hock Conformations. In many 
tests I have made of the hocks of different conforma- 
tions, I find it easy to group all hocks into three classes. 
These are shown in figure 82. The hock shown at "A" 
will never go wrong if the quality is good. Such a 
hock can be tested by applying mechanical power, and 
in practically every test, the bone will break before 
the hock goes wrong. In this conformation of hock it 
will be noticed that the point of the buttock, the point 
of the hock, and the back part of the fetlock are per- 
pendicular to each other. 

278. The Spavin and Thoroughpin Conformation. 
At "B" in this figure is shown a hock set too far back. 
Because of this set or angle such a hock will be found 
slightly open at the fore part of the joint, making this 
joint weak in its front part. It is with such a eon- 
formation that we usually find the spavin and thor- 
oughpin. Such a hock is likely to be as strong in its 
back part, as the hock shown at "A" in this figure, 
but will always be found weak at the front part of the 
joint. 

279. The Curby Conformation. The hock shown at 
the right in figure 82 is set tt)o far forward and will 
always be found weak at the hind part of the joint. 
It is with a conformation of the hock such as this, that 



TTIK SC'IKXCl': OF JL'l)(;iX(l DRAFT HORSKS 



267 





o o 



« -^ 










3 rs 



268 STUDIES IN HORSE I5REEDING 

we find the curb ; while such a hock may be as strong 
as any in its front part. 

280. The Importance of a Good Hock. In mailing 
out the circular letter, reference to which has already 
been made, copies of figures 82 and 83 were also en- 
closed. Reports of 101,839 horses owned were reported 
from this line of investigation. Of these 32,902 were 
reported as having become unsound. Owners of horses 
reporting were requested to compare the conformation 
of their horses with those shown in figures 82 and 83 
and report the result of these comparisons. Of the 
32,902 horses reported as unsound, 21,737 were re- 
ported unsound behind, 93 per cent of such unsound- 
ness being in the hock. Here again we have evidence 
of the imoprtance of a good hock, and based not upon 
theory, but actual fact. Of all horses becoming un- 
sound, 61 per cent did so because of their hock going 
wrong. In the selection of breeding stock, no part 
should be given as careful attention as the hock. 

281. The Conformation of Unsound Hocks. The 
conformation of hock shown at "xV" in figure 82, was 
seldom found with an unsound hock, while the sound 
horses were mostly reported with that conformation. 
The largest number of unsound hocks was reported 
as being of the conformation shown at "B" in figure 
82. 

282. The Correct Conformation of Pastern. Taking 
up the conformation of the fore legs, of the 32,902 
horses reported as unsound, 11,165 of them were re- 
ported unsound in front. As regards these, 10,378. 
were reported with short and straight pasterns. Some 
were reported as having rather poor feet at the time 



THE SCIENCE OF JUDOIXG DKAFT HORSES 289 

of their purchase, but where the i)astern was of proper 
length and elasticity, the feet had remained in about 
the same condition. Upon the other hand, horses pur- 
chased with good feet, but short, straight pasterns, 
soon became crippled in their feet. In no instance 
was a shoulder lameness reported that the horse did 
not have a straight pastern. The pastern should be 
of fairly good length, and set at an angle of 45 degrees. 

283. Unsoundness Resulting from a Short and 
Straight Pastern. It can be readily seen that Avithout 
a pastern of reasonable length and elasticity, to aid in 
dissipating concussion, the draft horse will not long 
remain sound in front when used upon the paved 
streets of the cities. Taking the reports together it 
will be seen that short and straight pasterns in front 
and defective hocks behind, are responsible for most of 
the unsoundness of our draft horses. The table below 
will show the defects, both as to kind and numbers of 
the 32,902 horses reported unsound. 

Per Cent 

Fore feet 2337 7.4 

Sidebone 4186 12.7 

Pastern 978 2.9 

Fetlock 1269 3.8 

Knee 7 .02 

Elbow 69 .2 

Shoulder 2319 7. 

Hind feet 43 .13 

Pastern 107 .32 

Fetlock 1282 3.9 

Hock 20215 61.4 

Stifle 61 .18 

Hip 29 .08 



270 STUDi?:s IX iioksi': r.KEKnixf; 

284. Sidebones. No attempt has l^ecn made to in- 
dicate the iinsoiindness by g'ivino- it a name, the loca- 
tion of the trouble only liein^i' ^iven. The one excep- 
tion to this rule is in regard to sidebones. This defect 
was of snch frequent occurrence, I deemed it best to 
let it be known, as 12.7 per cent of all unsound horses 
were troubled with sidebone. Here for the first time 
is given the location and per cent of frequency of the 
occurrence of unsoundness in draft horses, as one may 
reasonably expect to find them upon the streets of our 
cities. The four weakest parts of the draft horse, in 
the order of their frequency, is the hock, with 61.4 per 
cent; the fore pastern (including coronet,) with 15.6 
per cent ; the fore feet, with 7.4 per cent ; and the 
shoulder, with 7 per cent. It has already been observed 
that the defects of feet and shoulder were aggravated 
at least by a defective pastern. In very many in- 
stances they were directly caused by a defective past- 
ern. Reducing the number of weak points in the horse 
as much as possible, and we find that about 85 per cent 
of the unsoundness reported, was the result of defect- 
ive hock and pastern. Taking the entire number of 
horses reported, sound and unsound, about 20 per cent 
were defective in the hocks, and about 10 per cent 
were defective in the fore pastern. 

285. The Importance of Good Hock and Pastern. 

No such importance as this, has ever been given to 
these two points of the draft horse, by any .judge or 
system of judging in this country. Here also is one of 
the reasons why so little value is placed upon prize 
winning horses by the great mass of people, and es- 
pecially breeders. Exhibitors will themselves price 



THE SCIENCE OF JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 271 

first })rize winners l)elow those winning' no place in the 
same class. It also exjilains in a measure, why onr 
l)est horses are never shoAvn. 

286. The Value of Good Eyes. The next most im- 
portant point in the horse, is the eye. It is very im- 
portant, both because of the utility value it gives the 
horse, and the tendency to inherit defective vision. In 
a report upon 49,317 horses used in this country, eight 
years or more of age, 5,013 had some inherited defect 
of the eye. At the age of four and five years, these 
same horses had all been passed as having good eyes. 
These reports were based upon the examinations of 
veterinarians, and must be considered reliable. Such 
a report is startling, however, and well may be when 
some more than 10 per cent of the commercial horses 
of a country have defective vision. It is much more 
than I would have been inclined to believe, had I not 
the figures before me. This is in a measure a breed 
defect, as the grade Percherons were found much more 
defective in this respect than any other breed. 

287. Intelligence and Temperament. The brain de- 
velopment of the horse, including temperament, playr? 
a much more important part in making up the value 
of a horse than has ever been accorded it. The greater 
the brain development in the draft horse, the more eas- 
ily his work is done, the more pleasurre the driver ex- 
periences in the handling of his team, and the less 
wear upon the horse as a result of his willingness to 
perform every duty required of him. 

288. Defective Wind. Another defect too frequent- 
ly seen in the draft horses of this country is that of 
defective wind. This defect is found in several forms, 



272 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

the most common being that of roaring, and more cor- 
rectly known as laryngeal hemiphlegia. I have attempt- 
ed no line of investigation so difficnlt of attaining 
detinite resnlts, as that of reaching any definite con- 
clnsions in the matter of defective wind. This, for the 
most part, was made difficnlt hecanse of there being 
no way of testing the wind of a horse except to "wind 
him" by violent exercise, snch as rapid trotting or 
running. Running the horse a short distance is the 
test employed in the markets when a horse is sold, 
but for the large nsers of heavy horses in the cities 
to employ such a method at their annual examinations, 
or at any time, would require considerable time and 
one finds no disposition on the part of the large con- 
cerns to waste time in doing such things. The result 
is that no test for wind is given until the horse is 
incapacitated for work. I find that many of the largest 
transfer companies, as well as others employing a large 
number of horses, have a system of examining their 
horses annually, and keeping a record of such exam- 
inations, but the test for wind is omitted. 

In a systematic attempt to secure data upon this sub- 
ject and covering a period of several years, I have 
been unable to secure complete and reliable reports on 
but 11,649 horses. These were horses all of which had 
been tested for their wind when purchased, and their 
wind found right in every particular. This would 
place these horses above the average in this one par- 
ticular at the time these reports were made, and yet 
1986 were found with defective wind in a marked de- 
gree. This is a little better than 17 per cent. In these 
reports every horse owned by the companies reporting 



THE SCIEXCE OF JUDOIXf) DRAFT HORSES 273 

were tested, and the full number owned by them as 
well as the number found defective were recorded. 

No provision has been made for attaching auy im- 
portance to this defect, or its causes, in the methods 
of judging horses as at present employed, and yet 
actual fact, based upon the most painstaking examina- 
tions, teaches us that it should be given an importance 
of 17 per cent, even when the better class of horses are 
under consideration. The scale of points now in gen- 
eral use places an importance of 12 out of a possible 
100 upon the eye, fore pastern, hock and wind, while 
actual demonstrated fact shows they should be given 
an importance of 57 out of a possible 100. This is cer- 
tainly a wide difference, but just so long as standards 
are based upon theory, just so long will we find judges 
differing, and horses winning high honors valued be- 
low those winning no place in the same class. Too 
much attention has been given to theories in the judg- 
ing of horses for the good of the horse breeding in- 
dustry. It has never occurred to judges of horses that 
judging might be reduced to a science, based upon 
actual fact. 

289. Judging Cattle. The judging of fat cattle has 
been reduced to an almost exact science. The animal 
to be judged is divided (mentally) into the several 
commercial cuts, so that when the judging is complete, 
one has a fairly accurate idea of which animal in the 
class judged would sell for the most money in tlie oorn 
market. There is no known reason why the same rule 
cannot be applied to the judging of draft horses. To 
do this one has only to keep in mind a fact well known 



274 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

to all, that a draft horse is but an animated machine 
to he nsed for a specific purpose. 

290. A New Scale of Points- 1 believe the follow- 
ing' scale of points will be found more nearly correct, 
as regards the relative importance of each part of the 
draft horse, than any ever formulated : 

Form and Quality: 

The legs viewed from in front and behind should be well 
set under the horse; viewed from the side they should 

be perpendicular to the body 4 

Weight, over 1800 lbs., according to age 5 

Quality, as indicated by smooth and hard bone, skin and 

hair fine, with an abundance of energy 5 

Head and Neck: 

Intelligence, as indicated by width and fulness between 

the eyes, and good length from eyes to ears 4 

Eyes, large, full, bright and of a hazel color 10 

Ears, medium size and carried erect 1 

Neck, good length, muscled, with well defined crest, wind 

pipe large, throat latch clean 1 

Forequarters : • 

Shoulder sloping, well muscled 3 

Arm and forearm well muscled 1 

Knees wide, straight, well supported below 1 

Fetlocks wide and strong 2 

Pasterns, sloping 45 degrees, good length, elastic 10 

Feet, large, even size, dense horn 5 

Body : 

Long, with short back and long underline, well covered 

with muscle. Width good 2 

Chest wide, extending well down between forelegs; large 

girth, 86 inches or more in mature horse 2 

Underline, flank low and well filled 2 

Hindquarters: 

Croup wide, straight, tail attached high, well carried; 
thighs and gaskins very muscular 1 



THE SCIENCE OF JUDGING PRAFT HORSES 275 

Hocks, clean, wide, straight and strong 16 

Fetlocks, wide and straight 2 

Pasterns, medium length, sloping 2 

Feet, large, even size, dense horn 3 

Walk, straight, regular, long stride, balanced and elastic. . 8 
Wind: 

(Actual test) good, clear, breathing deep and strong. ... 10 

100 
An unsound horse, or one with defective wind should be 
given no place in any show ring. 



CHAPTER XX. 



FEEDING THE HORSE. 

In several preceding chapters the subject of feeds or 
feeding had to be taken up, but only because of its in- 
fluence upon the subject then under discussion. This 
chapter is not intended to be more than an aid to the 
breeder in the feeding of his horses. 

291. The Extraction of Nutriment. The amount of 
nutriment to be secured by the horse from any kind or 
quantity of feed, depends upon its mastication, the 
action of the salivary glands and the gastric fluids. 
The food is first reduced by the molar teeth, assisted 
by lips, tongue and cheeks, in passing it to the place 
of grinding and holding it in position. In the horse 
the lower jaw is about an inch narrower than the up- 
per, so that grinding is possible on but one side at a 
time. As mastication proceeds the feed is mixed with 
saliva poured upon it from glands opening into the 
mouth. 

292. The Amount of Saliva Secreted. Experiments 
made by Colin made it possible for him to state that it 
required nearly twenty minutes for a horse to masti- 
cate one pound of dry fodder consumed. Oats recpiired 
a little more than their own weight, green fodder about 



FEEDING THE HORSE 277 

half. It can be seen that the more thorough the masti- 
cation, the more perfect the digestion following. In 
other words the more time consumed in the mastication 
of his food, the better will the digestion of the horse be 
carried through. In this connection for feeding grain, 
an automatic feeder has many advantages over feeding 
in an open trough. Digestion is further aided by the 
gastric fluids poured upon the food after it enters the 
stomach. 

293. Size of Stomach. The stomach of the horse is 
so snuill that it cannot contain much feed at one time, 
because of which the food is constantly being pushed 
on and out of the stomach before it has been long acted 
on by the gastric juice. The large intestine of the horse 
has a capacity of about six times the stomach, permit- 
ting the retention of a large quantity of food. The 
capacity of the stomach of a mature horse is but eigh- 
teen to twenty quarts. The entire alimentary canal is 
but a system of glands, secreting fluids to aid the pro- 
cess of digestion. 

294. The Elements of Food. Foods may be divided 
into three elements or classes of nutrition ; protein, 
consisting of the nitrogenous substances of the food ; 
fats, which are absorbed unchanged in the form of an 
emulsion ; and carbohydrates, which are converted into 
some form of sugar, which enters the blood by absorp- 
tion from the intestinal canal. 

295. A Proper Balance of Nutrition. We have now 
reached that part of our subject, where trouble is eas- 
ily in evidence. Food products can be so compounded 
that a proper balance between the three elements of 



278 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

i'ood nutrition may be maintained, and yet not be the 
correct ration for the animal we are feeding-. 

296. Acids and Bases. The Ohio experiment sta- 
tion has recently concluded experiments; and an- 
nounced the same in their bulletin number 207, dealing 
with balanced rations for animals from a new stand- 
point. The one thing of most value to feeders and 
breeders resulting from this experiment, is that not 
only should there be a balance between the protein and 
other food elements, but that the balance between the 
inorganic acid and base forming elements in the food 
should also be maintained ; that the acid formers should 
not predominate over the bases in the feed. This bul- 
letin is far in advance of anything ever published upon 
the subject, a part of which follows . 

297. Inorganic Matter. There are in all food stuffs 
minerals taken from the soil by the plant. These min- 
erals form the ash left when the portions of plant ma- 
terial are burned, and because they are not destroyed 
l)y fire they are called inorganic. Some of these ele- 
ments which remain behind in the ash when foodstuffs 
are burned unite with oxygen and water to form acids ; 
others unite with oxygen and water to form what is 
known as bases, of which slacked lime is a good exam- 
])le. Now the process to which foods are subjected in 
the body is really a burning process; at all events the 
end products are similar to those resulting from ordi- 
nary burning. Thus when foods are taken into the 
body these inorganic elements form acids and bases as 
final products. 

298. The Balance Between Acids and Bases. Bases 
and acids have peculiar properties. However, when an 



FEEDING THE HORSE 279 

acid and a base are brought together they neutralize 
each other and the resultant product is something en- 
tirely different from either of the original compounds, 
having lost all its active and irritating properties. In 
the animal body, as we have said, the inorganic, or ash 
elements, of the food form acids and bases. If the base 
formed is in excess of the acid, the acid is neutralized 
and the functions of the body continue normal, sinc^ 
Ihe normal condition of the blood and body tissues 
seem to be slightly basic. If, however, the acid formed 
in the body as a result of the breaking down of the food 
materials is in excess of the bases, then an abnormal 
condition results, and if long continued, the animal will 
be affected with a disease known as acidosis or acid in- 
toxication. This may become so serious as to cause the 
death of the animal. 

299. Sulphur and Phosphorus Found Mostly in Pro- 
tein Foods. In the common foodstuffs on the farm the 
mineral substances which produce acids in the body are 
snlphur, phosphorus and chlorine; those which produce 
bases are potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium. 
These are found in various combinations in plants and 
feeds, but the greater part of the acid-forming sul)- 
stance in the animal body comes from sulplnir and 
phosphorus. The sulphur of feeds is contained abnost 
entirely in the protein or muscle-forming part; phos- 
phorus is contained in a numl)er of forms in feed, but 
most largely in the protein, also. Thus it will be seen 
tluit any feed rich in protein will cause the formation 
of a large amount of inorganic acid in the animal body. 
This requires that high protein foods have sufficient 
base-forming material accompanying them to insure 



280 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

that the acid formed in the animal body will all be neu- 
tralized. 

302. The Cause of Small Bones. It will be seen 
from this that the ])alance between the acid-forming 
elements and the base-ft)rming elements in the ration 
for animals is of great importance. This balance is in- 
dicated by analysis in the ash of the feeds, which 
shows the relative proportion of the two classes of ele- 
ments. Unless sui^cient base-forming material is pres- 
ent in foods, the bones themselves will be robbed to 
supply bases to neutralize the excess of acid. A condi- 
tion of this kind is the cause of rickets or porous bone 
in old animals; and of a lack of bone development in 
young animals where the ash content of the food may 
be high, but where the acid-forming and base-forming 
elements are not balanced. 

301. Com Has an Acid Ash- In straight corn-feed- 
ing we see the resultant of a complication of deficien- 
cies; corn lacks protein as well as minerals. In the 
ash, both acids and bases are deficient but the bases 
considerably more so than the acids, so that as an only 
food, corn is characterized by an excess of acid mineral 
elements, and this excess, together with the deficiency in 
the total amount of mineral matter present, limits the 
growth of the skeleton ; but if the protein in the ration 
of the corn-fed animal is increased by the use of sup- 
plements to such an extent as will support a maximum 
production of protein increase, then both phosphorus 
and the mineral bases must be increased. 

302. The Quantity of Ash Required. The basic min- 
eral elements in a ration must be present in quantities 
corresponding to the protein, since the sulphur and 



FEEDING THE HORSE 281 

phosphorus of the food proteins constitute the chief 
sources of mineral bases in the food hut also that this 
excess he maintained at a high level; that is, that aside 
from the balance between acid and l)ase, the total quan- 
tity of ash should be considerable. 

303. Alfalfa and Clover are very rich not only in 
protein but also in the mineral bases, so that they make 
a fine supplementary food for corn. That alfalfa gives 
such excellent results when fed with corn to horses can 
be accounted for in no small degree by the fact that it 
is so rich in mineral leases. 

304. Corn Makes a Poor Showing When Fed to 
Breeding Animals. This necessity of maintaining the 
balance between the inorganic acid and base-forming 
elements, explains why it is impossible to make an 
ideal ration for horses used for breeding purposes, 
when any part of that ration is corn. It will be remem- 
bered that in a former chapter I mentioned instances 
of both stallions and mares being kept on an exclusive 
grain ration of corn for two or three years without 
apparent injury, and then have them go wrong, becom- 
ing sterile or nearly so, seemingly at once. In all the 
data collected ujion the subject of sterility, in no case 
did a ration of which corn was a part make a good 
showing. 

305. The Minimum Amount of Nutriment. Food 
supplies materials for making good the waste of body 
tissues. If the supply is liberal and exceeds the de- 
mands of the body, the horse will gain in flesh and 
weight. If the sup]ily is only e(jual to the material 
broken down, the weight of the horse will remain un- 
changed. If the supply is below the actual demands 



282 STUDIES IN HORSE BKEEDING 

of the body, the horse will lose weight. There is a 
minimum amount of nutriment absolutely necessary 
for the maintenance of life. 

306. Protein Consumption. The protein of the food 
is the only source of nitrogenous substances in the 
body. The formation of flesh, therefore, is primarily 
dependent upon the supply of protein in the food. Any 
excess of protein in the food of a horse is disposed of 
through the excretion of urine. The decomposition of 
nutritive material of the blood and body tissues goes 
on as long as the horse lives, and this is known as pro- 
tein consumption. Neither fat nor carbohydrates. 
Avhen fed alone, have any influence upon protein con- 
sumption. The body Avould decompose the same amount 
of protein, in the case of exclusive feeding of fat or 
carbohydrates, as if no food whatever was g:iven. When 
a balanced ration is fed, consisting of protein this con- 
sumption depends wholly upon the supply of protein in 
the food. 

307. Salt. The feeding of salt daily in moderate 
quantities to horses, increases the secretion of the body 
fluids and their circulation, and increases the energy of 
the vital processes. It also has a stimulating influence 
on the appetite of the horse, and should always be a 
small part of the ration for all breeding horses. 

308. Nervous Energy is Increased by Protein. One 
very noticeable thing in the making of a ration for a 
horse, is the increase of nervous energy noted as the 
ration is narrowed; that is as the protein is increased 
at the expense of the carbohydrates. This teaches us 
that the ration may be widened for horses not at work. 
The ratio of the legumes usually fed the horse, such as 



KKKDIXCi THE HORSK 2S3 

the clovers and alfalfa, will averag-e about 1 :3V:l;, while 
for other fodders, or coarse foods it will run from 1 :7 
up to 1 :12. Horses fed upon the former always display 
the more energy. The same is true of concentrates or 
grains. The ratio of oats always gives the greater en- 
ergy. By ratio is meant in this chapter, the ratio of 
protein to carbohydrates. 

309. Digestibility of Foods. The digestibility of 
foods differ, but the average digestibility of the pro- 
tein and carbohydrates found in the foods usually 
given the horse is about 80 per cent. If one was to 
follow a system of balanced ration feeding, for every 
1,000 pounds of weight should be given 20 pounds of 
food (dry matter), in which could be found two pounds 
of protein and 11 pounds of carbohydrates. Seldom 
can be found two horses in the same barn requiring the 
same amount of food. It is because of this that more 
skill is required in the feeding of horses than any other 
animals. 

310. In Conclusion, as already stated in previous 
chapters, I would feed no corn to horses which were to 
be used for breeding. Corn stover, free from dirt and 
dust is good. Also any hay well cured, and free from 
mould or dust. The clovers and alfalfa fed in modera- 
tion have no equal. Oat. barley and wheat straw are 
safe to use, and can be used with the clovers and al- 
falfa to advantage. Grasses or grains likely to contain 
ergot should be avoided. Millet should never be fed a 
horse of any kind. Sorghum hay or fodder is hazard- 
ous at best. Kaffir fodder has proved a very fair food 
for the horse in several localities, but I have never used 
it. The best single urain ever fed a horse is oats. 



284 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

Crushed barley is the next best, but should be crushed, 
and not ground. Wheat bran is good when mixed with 
other feed, but Avill not be needed if clover or alfalfa 
is used. Shorts and middlings form a pasty nuiss in the 
stomach of a horse and should not be used. Kaffir corn 
ground has proved a very fair food for a horse, but is 
improved with a mixture of oats. Cotton seed meal 
should never be used, and linseed meal only in small 
quantities. After all is said, the secret of successful 
feeding lies in so feeding the horse that he may be 
found at his best at all times, and what may be best 
for one, may not prove best for another. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

311. Diagnosis. Only those diseases likely to be 
of interest to the breeder will be discussed in this chap- 
ter. If one has a thousand dollars or more invested in 
a stallion, he can illy afford to let him die, if there is any 
way known of saving- his life. It is because of this 
large investment in a single individual that makes the 
usual home treatment unprofitable in a very large per 
cent of cases. It is in diagnosing a case one finds the 
greatest difficulty. Even in colic and other diseases of 
the digestive organs, one often meets with great diffi- 
culty in learning the real trouble. Because of this, if 
it is possible to obtain the services of a veterinarian, it 
will prove a good investment to do so. Sometimes a 
veterinarian can not be had, and under such circum- 
stances one should do the best he can. In diagnosing 
the ailments of a horse one need expect but little of 
breeders, when it is remembered that this is the one 
great and most uncertain task of veterinarians. 

312. Colic in the horse occurs in various forms. En- 
gorgement colic, obstruction colic, flatulent, or wind 
colic, spasmodic, or cramp colic, and worm colic are the 
most common forms. If a horse evinces abdominal pain 



286 STITDIES IN HORSK BREEDING 

he is likely to be put down as suffering with colic, even 
when the difficulty may be an internal hernia, overload- 
ing the stomach, or even a bladder or liver trouble. In- 
guinal hernia is likewise often mistaken for colic, hence 
one can see the absurdity of advising treatment at long 
range. If the horse is a valuable animal, no time 
should be lost in placing him in the care of a veterin- 
arian. The more valuable the horse the greater the 
need of this. 

313. Engorgement Colic is induced by overloading 
the stomach with food. The horse may either be over- 
fed, or else the stomach as a result of some cause may 
have failed to digest the food and passed it backward 
into the intestines. Greedy eaters are most predisposed 
to this disease. The one symptom likely to result in a 
correct diagnosis of this disease is attempts at vomit- 
ing. These movements are shown by labored breath- 
ing, upturned upper lip, contraction of the flank, active 
motion at the throat, drawing in of the nose toward the 
breast, causing high arching of the neck. Following 
retching, gas may escape from the mouth, and this may 
be followed by a sour froth and some stomach contents. 
The horse cannot vomit except when the stomach is 
violently stretched. If the accumulation of food or 
gas is great enough to stretch the stomach so that vom- 
iting is possible, it may be great enough to rupture this 
organ. But after the stomach ruptures, vomiting is 
impossible. This condition of the stomach is generally 
made known to us, as soon as food is thrown out 
through the nostrils. The death rate from this form 
of colic is higher than in the case of any other. 

314. Obstruction Colic usually is known as impac- 



DISEASES OP" THE HORSE 287 

lion of the large intestines. It may be, however, the 
ol)struction of the diiiestive tract by accnnnibitions 
of i)artly dioested food, by foreijin bodies, by displace- 
ments, by paralysis, or by abnormal growths. It is 
generally indnced by overfeeding, or the feeding of 
old dry hay, or stalks, superindnced by a deficiency of 
the secretions of the intestinal tracts. The last named 
condition may be brought about by lack of water, or 
the nse of too much strong medicine. The only treat- 
ment in this form of colic that can l)e effective is to pro- 
duce movement of the bowels, so as to prevent inflam- 
mation of the same from arising. 

315, Flatulent, or Wind Colic, may be induced by 
anything that may produce indigestion. The chief 
symptoms of flatulent colic is the distention of the bow- 
els with gas. The symptoms of this disease are not so 
suddenly developed nor so severe as those of cramp 
colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, paws 
some, and the abdomen enlarges. The pains from the 
start are continuous. If not soon relieved the symp- 
toms are aggravated, and in addition there are noticed 
difficult breathing, mucous membrane highly colored, 
profuse perspiration and trendiling of the front legs. 
This form of colic is much more fatal than spasmodic 
colic. The treatment differs very materially from that 
of spasmodic colic. An injection, per rectum of two 
ounces turpentine in eight ounces of linseed oil may 
safely be given every thirty minutes to stimulate mo- 
tion of the bowels and favor the escape of wind. The 
removal of the gas from the bowels is the essential 
thing. Under the direction of a veterinarian the bow- 
els may be punctured with a small trocar or needle of 



288 STITDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

a liypodermic syringe. This has often saved the life of 
a horse, and can be done with no danger if made with 
a clean instrnment. 

316. Spasmodic, or Cramp Colic, is the result of con- 
traction, or spasm of a portion of the small intestines. 
Spasmodic colic is more frequently met with in high 
bred, than in large draft horses. Like external 
cramps, spasmodic colic is caused by the unequal dis- 
tribution of the nervous supply. Drinking cold water 
while warm, or the sudden lowering of the temperature 
of the body are the most frequent causes. There should 
be little trouble in diagnosing this form of colic from 
any other form, yet there frequently is. One should 
keep in mind that in spasmodic colic the attack is sud- 
den ; the pain violent, Avith intervals of ease, the tem- 
perature and pulse normal during the intervals of ease, 
and that frequent attempts to urinate are always made. 
The treatment should be something in the way of an 
antispasmodic, since the pain is due to spasm or cramp. 
Given as a drench every half hour until relief is no- 
ticed, the following is the best formula I have ever 
tried : Laudanum one ounce. Sulphuric ether one-half 
ounce. Turpentine two ounces, raw linseed oil four 
ounces. Shake well before using. I give this only be- 
cause in cases of this form of colic there is great need 
of quick relief, and unless help is given the animal 
early in the disease, there is likely to be serious trouble. 

317. Worm Colic is a symptom rather than a disease. 
In many cases of extreme worm infestation, there are 
colicky pains at times, such as switching of the tail, 
frequent passages of manure, and at times some slight 
straining. About every other man one meets has a 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 289 

' ' sure cure ' ' for intestinal worms in horses, but if plen- 
ty of well cured alfalfa hay be given either horses or 
colts, no "cures" will be needed. 

318. Inguinal Hernia is frequently mistaken for 
colic. Within a few minutes after an accident of this 
kind occurs, the horse will become restless. He will 
jerk up the hind legs, kick at the belh% and point with 
his nose to the side. The symptoms will increase in se- 
verity until the horse begins to sweat and roll as in 
some forms of colic. Inguinal hernia is but an incom- 
plete scrotal hernia, and may exist and cause no signs 
of distress, or it may become strangulated and cause 
the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia is seen mostly 
in stallions, occasionally in geldings but rarely in 
mares. 

Until about the ninth month of fetal life, the testi- 
cles of the male occupy a position in the abdominal 
cavity, similar to that occupied by the ovaries of the fe- 
male. At about the ninth month the testicles begin to 
descend, and finally become lodged in the sac called 
the scrotum. In making this change a canal is formed 
called the inguinal canal, which connects the scrotum 
below and the intestinal cavity above. This canal is 
permanently occupied by cords, arteries and canals of 
the genital organs. 

It will be seen then that there exists in the stallion 
and gelding an opening through which it is possible 
for the small intestines to pass into the scrotum. The 
passing of such intestines into or through this canal is 
inguinal hernia. If the intestines are crowded with 
sufficient force into this canal so that the circulation 
through the bowel is impeded, it is strangulated. Stran- 



290 STUDIES IX HORSE KREKDIXG 

iiulated iuyiiinal occurs much more frequently in the 
stallion than in the geldino-. It is very serious and of- 
tentimes a fatal accident. 

It is easy for anyone with a slight knowledge of the 
anatomy of the parts, to understand that the position 
a stallion assumes during coition favors inguinal her- 
nia. It will be observed that the testicle on the side of 
the hernia is kept, tightly drawn upward in the inquinal 
region, and if the loop of the bowel has descended 
through the in((uinal canal, it can be made out as quite 
an enlargement al)ove the testicle. An examination 
made through the rectum is the only way to confirm 
the diagnosis, when any entrance of a gut into the canal 
can be felt from within. 

The treatment lies in its prompt reduction. If recog- 
nized early, this can be accomplished by careful trac- 
tion upon the hernial mass. Every care must be exer- 
cised lest laceration occur, and the longer the time of 
the hernia, the greater the care to be exercised. This 
is one of those conditions where the amateur is likely to 
do no harm, even though he does no good, and no effort 
should be spared in reducing the hernia in the shortest 
time possible. If the owner of a stallion does not suc- 
ceed in a very short time, or if in the beginning of such 
an accident he feels himself unable for the task, a vet- 
erinarian should be secured as early as possible. In 
such cases one should remember that the hernia must 
be reduced or the stallion will die. 

319. Orchitis is another disease with which stallions 
may become afflicted. When not by blows or bruises, 
orchitis is likely to be the result of congestion, pro- 
duced by excessive copulation, exciting the sexual de- 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 291 

sire without o-ratiti cation, or heavy grain feeding with 
little exercise- By removing the cause, reducing the 
grain ration, increasing the exercise, the giving of some 
laxative such as two ounces of Glauber's salts daily in 
the food, and the bathing of the affected organs daily 
with hot water will usually restore the testicles to a 
healthy condition. 

320. Hemorrhage of the Penis is generally induced 
by blows, or the force used in entering small, constrict- 
ed mares, coupled with too frequent service. The 
treatment may be rest from service for a few days, and 
the application of alum water to the end of the penis. 

321. Maladie Du Colt is a germ disease, and is prop- 
agated by the act of copulation. It is not unlike syph- 
ilis in the human subject, and is highly contagious, af- 
fecting both stallions and mares. It has depopulated a 
few herds in the western states, and as there is no sat- 
isfactory treatment of the malady, it should be stamped 
out by castration or death. 

322. Anthrax is a germ disease, and until within very 
recent years the horse had always been considered im- 
mune. In the valleys of the upper ]Missouri river and 
some of its tributaries, it has made the horse breeding 
industry unprofitable. The disease is never present in 
the high lands of the west so far as the horse is con- 
cerned. The virus of diseased animals is disseminated 
in the excrement, which is often mixed with blood, and 
therefore with the microbes. The anthrax bacillus is 
shown in figure 84. They are straight cylindrical rods, 
usually associated in twos and threes, but sometimes in 
chains. The formation of spores does not usually take 
place until after the death of the animal. They multi- 



292 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



ply most rapidly under mean temperatures, yet when 
dry the spores will resist boiling water for some time. 
The bacilli are taken into the system with the herbage. 
The disease shows itself* by a fever, with more or less 
stupor of the patient. The blood is much changed, 
sometimes visible hemorrhages occur. The intestinal 
lesions in the horse often give rise to more or less vio- 
lent symptoms of colic. This complication, considered 




Figure 84. The bacillus of authrax. (1000 diameters.) 

too exclusively, frequently interferes with the correct 
diagnosis of the essential disease. After death the 
blood is found to be de-oxygenated, viscid, the corpus- 
cles altered, and the plasma colored red. The spleen 
is much enlarged. The intestines are sometimes the 
seat of intense congestive hemorrhagic lesions, and in 
some cases the lymphatic glands of the different re- 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 



293 



o'ions are in the same condition, and also enlarged to 
twice or three times their normal size. Similar lesions 
may also be fonnd in the kidneys. 

This is an nnfortnnate disease for the breeder, and 
it should be reported to the state veterinarian as soon 
as its presence is known. 

323. Tetanus (Lockjaw) is a germ disease, the 
])acilli lieinu' shown in figure So. Breeders are likelv 




Figure 85. The bacillus of tetanus (lockjaw). 



to be troubled with tetanus to (juite an extent, the infec- 
tion following pricks of nails or abrasions of the skin. 
The bacillus does not multiply in air containing oxy- 
gen, besause of whicli only deep punctures are likely to 
become infected. It is very resistant to heat, support- 
ing the temperature of l)oiliug water for some time. It 



294 STUDIES IN HORSE BKEEDING 

is but little sensitive to the action of antiseptics. To be 
infectious the bacilli require the co-operation of other 
microbes. 

The disease is characterized by spasms affecting the 
muscles of the face, neck, body and legs, and of all the 
muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves. The 
spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persist- 
ent. The first symptoms which attract the attention 
of the owner, is difficulty in chewing or swallowing, of 
moving, and the protrusion over the inner part of the 
eye of the membrane commonly called the haw. The 
jaws are set or locked, wholly or in part, giving use to 
the name of lockjaw. If the attack is acute, the ani- 
mal will die within a very few days. If of a milder 
form he may be saved. Tetanus antitoxin injected be- 
neath the skin with a hypodermic syringe, will afford 
a very high degree of protection. The patient should 
be kept in a quiet place, away from all other animals 
and noises. The bowels should be kept active by the 
use of cathartics. Mares infected with tetanus poison, 
seldom breed after, even though a complete recovery 
is apparent. 

324. Influenza is another disease of the horse, and 
a very common one, that is of interest to the breeder. 
It is of especial interest to the lireeder because of its 
effect upon both stallions and In^ood mares. The latter 
if pregnant are very apt to abort. Young stallions are 
frequently made sterile by a severe attack of intiuenza. 
It occurs in several forms, such as equine typhoid fever, 
pink eye and others. When the visible mucous mem- 
branes are the principle seat of the disease it is termed 
pink eye. 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 295 

It is a contagious and infections fever, caused by a 
microbe shown in figure 86. Young horses and colts 
are more susceptible than mature horses, and one at- 
tack is generally self-protective. Very few horses con- 
tract the disease after their fifth year, and those kept in 
poorly ventilated stables experience a more severe at- 
tack than those accessible at all times to pure air. The 
disease is known bv its alterations of the blood, great 







Figure 86. The bacillus of influenza. (1000 diameters.) 

depression of the vital forces, stupor and frequent com- 
plications of the lungs, intestines and brain. Occasion- 
ally an apparent recovery is followed by n severe re- 
lapse, sometimes proving fatal. 

Good nursing is the best treatment. The animal 
should have access to an abundance of pure air and 
sunshine but the wind should never be permitted to 



296 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

blow directly upon the patient. The patient may be 
allowed any nourishing' food relished. The bowels 
should be made to perform their functions promptly 
and regularly. If inclined to be constipated, small 
doses of Glauber's salts may be given. If the weather 
is very cold the patient may be kept warm by blanket- 
ing. In most cases no serious trouble will be exper- 
ienced if the horse be handled so as not to take a cold. 

One of the most serious conditions resulting from in- 
fluenza, of interest to the breeder, is that of its effect 
upon the mucous membrane of the uterus. Quite fre- 
quently young mares from three to six years of age 
after suffering with an attack of this disease will be 
found discharging pus or a glutinous substance from 
the vulva. This has been very frequently mistaken for 
the discharge common in cases of leucorrhea, but in- 
stead is the discharge from an abscess in the uterus. 
The mucous membranes throughout the animal are sub- 
ject to abscess formations during an attack of influenza, 
and locally no part is so likely to suffer as the uterus. 

No treatment will give better results for this particu- 
lar condition of the disease, than irrigating the uterus 
with hot water at a temperature of 105 degrees. This 
should be done several times every day until relief is 
given. 

325. Strangles is also an infectious disease of the 
horse, colts being more predisposed than mature horses. 
It is caused by infection by contact with an infected 
animal or the discharges of an infected animal. The 
germ or bacillus is shown in figure 87. It appears as a 
fever, lasting for some time, with formation of ab- 
scesses in various parts of the body, both near the sur- 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 297 

face and in the internal organs. It usuall^' leaves the 
animal after convalescence in the best of condition. 
About the only treatment necessary is to keep the ani- 
mal in dry quarters and feed a reasonable (luantity of 
good wholesome food. 

The swelling under the .iaw should be watelied and 
all blisters and irritating liniments should be kept 
awav. These swellinas nuiv he liathed with hot water. 







Figure 87. The bacillus of stangles. (1000 diameters.) 

and poultices may be applied. For such purposes no 
better poultices can be used than flax seed, with a little 
charcoal and creolin added. As soon as there is any 
evidence of the fonuation of pus, the abscess should be 
opened. 

326. Pneumonia is another disease of interest to 
breeders, and it is only in the case of very young foals 



298 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

that I shall make mention of it. A large number of 
foals coming early each spring, appear all right when 
foaled, but within two or three days are dead. These 
mostly die of pneumonia, usually contracted during 
the first hour of their life. In the early spring while 
the weather is chilly and the air damp, unless a blanket 
is thrown over a foal until it is dry, it is in serious 
danger of contracting a cold, which more likely than 
not will terminate in pneumonia. Lying upon cold or 
damp ground is also dangerous. 

The first thing to attract attention in cases such as 
this, wull be a dullness and weakness of the foal. If 
at this stage of the disease the membranes of the eye 
appear red, there is no help for its life, for it is sure to 
go. If the ear is placed at the side of the foal just be- 
hind the elbow, a rasping or rattling sound will be 
heard. After death, the autopsy will disclose a thick, 
dark blood, and the blackened lungs. All that can be 
done with such cases is to try to prevent them. One 
thing that can be done is to have the foals come later. 
It has been shown that the loss of foals is confined 
largely to early ones. If one must have them come 
early, every means should be employed in an effort to 
keep them warm, and where no wind can strike them 
until they are well dried. Only think what it would 
mean if a man was to take a hot bath at a temperature 
of 100 degrees, and immediately step into a room with- 
out clothing where the temperature was as low as 50 
degrees. That is what the young foal does in many in- 
stances, and results in the loss of many. 

327. The Navel Infection of Foals is another disease 
resulting in much loss to breeders. This also, is a 



DISEASKS OF THE HORSE 



299 



trouble of early foals. It is a true oerm disease, the 
bacillus being shown in figure 88. This bacillus can 
not be propagated without oxygen, hence is always 
found near the surface of the ground. Nor will it mul- 
tiply at a high temperature, which accounts for its 
presence in the early spring. Wet situations are fav- 
orable to their development. Prevention is the best 




Figure 88. The bacillus of navel infection, 
ameters.) 



(1200 di- 



treatment, and consists of absolute cleanliness. Not 
only a clean stall should be given it in which to be 
born, but clean hands in handling it while wet, and the 
use of some good disinfectant two or three times daily 
upon the navel until it has dried and fallen off. Creo- 
lin, or any of the other coal-tar preparations are as 



300 



STUDIKS IN HORSE HRKEUIXG 



good as any. and these can generally be found in every 
barn, and a five per cent solution can be used for this 

purpose. 

Should the foal become infected, place him in the 
hands of a veterinarian as early as possible. There is 
but one satisfactory treatment, and it consists of a 
serum treatment, which should be used by a veterinar- 




'^^*^— - 
^^' -^ 



< 



V 



pp. 






Figure 89. Microbes frequently found in barren mares. 
(1200 diameters.) 

ian only. The symptoms are lameness from swollen 
joints, and the lameness will pass from one extremity 
to another in quite rapid succession. Foals dropped 
upon grass which is daily exposed to the sun are al- 
ways immune. 

328. Leucorrhea is a disease very discouraging to a 
breeder. There are but two primary causes, a want of 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 301 

proper nourishment, and congestion of the genital 
tract. The latter is often fonnd in a catarrhal condi- 
tion of the mare, a condition where some imflammation 
of all mucous membranes is present. There is more or 
less discharge, and of a nature all the way from a thin 
whitish and slimy to a thick yellowish substance. The 
hair on the under side of the tail is somewhat glued to- 



\0 » 



K 



Figure 90. The bacillus of contagious abortion in mares. 
(1000 diameters.) 

gether. Mares in this condition should never be bred, 
as the disease is likely to be infectious, and nothing 
should be done to spread the infection. See figures 89 
and 90. Only two or three per cent of such mares will 
breed, and only when the semen is introduced directly 
into the uterus. 

There are thousands of mares in the country that do 



302 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

not show the usual discharge by which leucorrhea is 
diagnosed, and yet do show a catarrhal condition, and 
they will not breed. These mares develop leucorrhea 
later if not given treatment before they reach that 
stage. In the treatment of this disease I wish to call 
the attention of veterinarians to the fact, that while 
the disease itself may yield as quickly to the perman- 
ganate of potash treatment as any other, yet the fact 
remains that mares do not breed, as a rule, after that 
treatment. I have been confronted with the problem 
of barren mares, where the condition of barrenness was 
the result of leucorrhea in some of its many forms for 
more than thirty years. It was not because of any de- 
sire to do it, but success in breeding made the solution 
of this problem an actual necessity. Mares with this 
disease, but of breeding age, are now giving me very 
little trouble. It takes much labor and some money to 
put such mares in condition but practically every one of 
breeding age can be made a breeder. 

In many cases of leucorrhea the uterus will be found 
in a normal condition, while in others the uterus will 
be found the source of all the trouble. It is well to use 
the thermometer in the diagnosis of all suspected cases. 
If the uterus is normal it will show a temperature the 
same as that of the body. If the uterus is the source 
of the trouble a high temperature will disclose the 
fact. When the mucous membrane of the vagina, 
only, is inflamed, the local treatment need extend no 
further, but if the uterus is the source of the inflamma- 
tion, then the local treatment will have to extend to 
this organ. 

It will be noticed that most mares in this condition, 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 303 

and I will include all mares of a catarrhal nature, are 
more or less debilitated. I look well to this tlrst, and 
usually give a tonic twice daily in the feed, of ten 
grains of sulphate quinine, ten grains sulphate of iron. 
For local treatment I have found nothing better than 
irrigating vagina, or uterus when necessary, with a 
gallon of hot water at a temperature of 105 degrees 
into which has been added a half teaspoonful of sul- 
phate of zinc. As soon as the tonic has put the mare 
in good condition, and this may be two weeks or it may 
be two months, instead of the tonic give twice daily in 
water, from one to two drams of tluid extract of Mit- 
chella Repens. I have been using this specific for bar- 
ren mares, and those troubled with catarrh and leu- 
corrhea for 11 years with uniformly good results. The 
sulphate of zinc is one of the best stimulants for mu- 
cous membranes we have. It is used by occulists in 
almost every preparation known for granulation or iu- 
tiammation of the eye. ]\Iares breed readily after this, 
if there is no trouble but those indicated. The fluid ex- 
tract of INIitchella Repens I have never known to be 
used in treating mares until used by myself. With good 
hygiene, good nursing, and treatment as directed, . I 
have made producers of many mares given up as barren 
by others. The Mitchella Repens (squaw vine) will 
stimulate the action of the ovaries as will nothing else. 
329. Abortion in mares is the last disease to be men- 
tioned in this chapter. This disease, so costly to breed- 
ers, can be divided into those that are contagious or 
infectious and those that are accidental. Abortion is 
the expulsion of the impregnated ovum at any period 
from the date of fertilization until the foal can survive 



304 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 

out of the litems. Accidental abortion may be brou^'ht 
about by reason of anytliinii' that very profoundly dis- 
turbs the system. Violent inflammations of any impor- 
tant internal organ, acute indigestion, diarrhoea, the 
presence of stone in the bladder, uterus or kidneys, 
may so disorder the uterus as to induce abortion. Ser- 
vice by the stallion, blows on the abdomen, rapid driv- 
ing or riding, over pulling on heavy loads, backing 
loads, rough handling or the use of the whip, shipping, 
.lumping, slipping, falls, working in deep mud or snow 
are all well known causes of abortion. It will be no- 
ticed, however, that most abortions occur just after 
cold rains and sudden changes of weather from warm 
to cold. About eighty per cent of all abortions occur 
at such times. Irritant medicines, the ergot of rye or 
other grasses, the smut of corn and other grain, and 
various fungi in musty hay are other causes. Frosted 
food, indigestible food, green food in a frozen state, 
and filthy, stagnant water are all dangerous to use for 
pregnant mares. In addition to all these one must not 
lose sight of the diseased condition of the fetus, or its 
membranes, entailed by a sire of low vitality, whether 
caused by too frequent service, or a want of proper 
exercise. 

The symptoms vary according as abortion is early or 
late in pregnancy. During the first two months, and 
by the way the largest numl)er of abortions occur at 
this time, the mare may abort without observable symp- 
toms, and the fact is made known only by her again 
coming in heat. If closely observed a small clot of 
blood may be found, in which the embryo will be re- 
vealed. If the occurrence is later in gestation, there is 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 305 

likely to be some general disturbance, when the siii;ill 
body of the fetus will be expelled, enveloped in its 
membranes. Abortions during the last stages of preg- 
nancy are attended with greater constitutional disturb- 
ance ; the process closely resembling normal parturition. 
There is the swelling of the vulva, with mucous or even 
bloody discharges, the abdomen droops, the flanks fall 
in, the udder fills, and the first pains of parturition 
begin. Abortion may be followed by the same acci- 
dents as normal parturition, such as malpresentations, 
flooding and retention of the placenta. 

Treatment should be preventive as much as possible, 
to the extent of avoiding all causes of constipation, 
diarrhea, indigestion, unnecessary medicines, painful 
operations, and abuses of all kinds. When abortion is 
threatened, the mare should be placed by herself and 
given one-half ounce of fluid extract of black haw, 
three times daily. The best veterinarians now regard 
this as the most active preventive of abortion known. 
Carbolic acid may be given in small quantities with 
good results. About 20 drops given with the fluid ex- 
tract of black haw twice daily would probably be better 
than either of them without the other. If the mare 
strains, leading her around for a time will sometimes 
stop it, but if it does not, this should be checked by 
some sedative. One ounce of laudanum in two ounces 
of water may be given every three hours until straining 
has ceased. 

If all measures fail and al)orti()u proceeds, all that 
can be done is to see that both fetus and membranes 
are removed. After abortion, good care should be 
given the mare in the way of exercise, pure air and 



306 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

wholesome food. No mare should be bred sooner than 
three months after an abortion, and some mares never 
conceive after one abortion. If a mare is bred and con- 
ceives, she should be treated for abortion before the 
next abortion is imminent. This can be done best by 
jiiving the black haw and carbolic acid as suggested, 
about one month earlier in the gestation than at which 
she aborted the preceding year. 

330. Contagious Abortion is not likely to be present 
in mares as in other douu^stic animals. It is only in 
low, undrained localities that I have found trouble of 
this nature among mares. It never occurs in high alti- 
tudes, and very rarely in high land localities of lower 
levels. No disease'is more difficult of diagnosis, since 
we find mares in the same herd manifesting many symp- 
toms. In most cases the mare appears sluggish, list- 
less, even stupid. Occasionally the opposite is indi- 
cated, the mare acting restless and nervous. A tem- 
perature of one or two degrees above normal is the rule 
for a day or so before the fetus is expelled. The cause 
of the disease is a germ or bacillus shown in figure 90. 

These bacilli were present in all of seventeen cases 
of abortion in one herd. Not a mare in this herd es- 
caped. The microbes were found in the excrement of 
geldings and young mares running in this herd, yet all 
animals incapable of producing foals were normal in 
every way. They were found in the excrement and 
blood of all mares aborting. Every fetus expelled was 
found to contain them in all parts. 

Blood serum cultures were injected into pregnant 
sows and cats with no evil results, but a five year old 
pregnant mare innoculated with pure cultures aborted 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 307 

11 days later. I found that the eultures ninltiplied 
most rapidly at a temperature of 40 to 50 degrees F. 
This will account for the prevalence of the disease late 
in the autumn. 

Since these germs are found only in low lands, it 
can not well be said they are associated with filthy 
conditions and surroundings. Mares running in low 
pastures but having no access to yards of any kind, 
or to filthy places are as likely to contract the trouble, 
as those having access to filthy yards and stables. 

The disease is highly infectious, as is evidenced by 
every mare in a herd aborting, and" the stallion is quite 
likely to be the source of infection. No stallion should 
ever be mated with a mare known to have aborted. 
Such mares should be bred by the capsule method. 
Mares will carry the infection from year to year and 
for many years, l^ecause of this mares aborting from 
this cause should be thoroughly disinfected before be- 
ing rebred. Every fetus of this' character should be 
destroyed by burning, and mares aborting should be 
removed from all other pregnant mares. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



BARNS AND BARN BUILDING. 

331. General Plans. It would require a full volume 
to do justice to this subject. Success in breeding de- 
pends so much upon the manner in which mares are 
housed, that a brief mention of the subject is made 
necessary in this work. Only the general principles 
of barn building will be discussed, however, and these 
but briefly. 

332. Ventilation. One of the essential things in 
housing horses which are to be used for breeding pur- 
poses, is that of ventilation. Too much fresh air can 
not be provided for them, and this can be supplied 
best by having high ceilings and admitting the air 
near the ceiling. This will make it impossible for di- 
rect draughts to fall upon the horses. Bad or vitiated 
air can be best disposed of by air-shafts running from 
the roof to near the floor. If the poisonous gases are 
thus drawn off, and the ceiling high above the horses, 
the general health of the animals will be good. Colds 
are seldom known in barns where fresh air is supplied 
in abundance. 

333. Sunlight. Of equal importance for the health 
of the horse is plenty of sunlight. It is not only the 



BARNS AND HARN BIILDING 



309 




-3 



310 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 



best and cheapest germicide known, but the eyes of 
horses kept in barns well lighted are always better 



-5? 1 ^ -^immnm 

A 



o5 



d oS 





'\ 


A 


b 


C 


1 ^ 


c 


c 


B->*jjj 


c 


c 




c 


oS 



-^ 

Figure 92. Ground floor plan of barn shown in figure 91. 
A— box stalls; C — open stalls; — office; L — breeding room; 
S — sewer. 



than those housed in dark or poorly lighted places. 
An abundance of light can be given a barn, and with 



BAKNS AND BARX BUILDING 311 

very little expense by the use of windows wherever 
a space can be found for one. If small windows are 
used placed well up to the ceiling", they can also be 
the source of fresh air, and these are the two es- 
sentials, if health be desired in a breeding- barn. 

334. Drainage. In the building of a barn good 
drainage should also be secured. If the barn is located 
in a city having a sewer system already established, 
it can be easily drained and kept in a sanitary condi- 
tion by connecting- the drainage with the sewer. If the 
barn is to be built in the country or in a small town, 
it should be built on an elevation admitting of good 
drainage. Unless good drainage is provided one need 
never expect his horses to remain in a thrifty and 
healthful condition. 

335. Floors. In barn building, never make a floor 
of wood in any part of the barn to be occupied by 
horses. A wooden floor can not be kept in a strictly 
sanitary condition by nny known means. If any floor 
other than earth is to l)e made, let it be of concrete. 
No floor ever built under a horse has so many good 
qualities as concrete or cement. Such a floor can 
be built that will last foi* 50 years, and at all times 
is easily kept in a sanitary condition. It is not ex- 
pensive, either, costing but little more than a good 
plank floor. For heavy stallions I make the floor eight 
inches thick, and six inches for the other horses. The 
l)ottom is made of one })art cement with three parts 
gravel, finished on top with cement and gravel, equal 
parts, and two inches thick. It should be left in the 
rough, no trowel being- used. To get the surface level 
or to any specified grade, a straight 2x6 board can be 



312 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

used. It will be noticed that I use no sand. In foun- 
dation work sand is seldom used by any one, and I 
use oravel on top instead, that I may have a rough 
surface. Even a horse without shoes will never slip 
on such a tloor. So long- as the general level or grade 
is secured, it matters not how rough the surface may 
b(\ The rougher it is the better it will be for horses 
from every viewpoint. 

336. Cement. I am often asked if the cement is 
not a bad thing for the horse to stand upon. Instead, 
it is the best thing a horse can have under him. If men 
would do a little thinking for themselves, most of 
these questions would answer themselves. All horses 
grown near the sea coast and at low altitudes have a 
broad foot, with a thin, weak wall, while horses grown 
at high altitudes and in di'.\' territory always 
have feet, high rather than broad, with thick, 
strong walls. The goat offers a good illustra- 
tion. In his native habitat we find him living upon 
the rocks, and his foot is more flinty, of finer and bet- 
ter texture than any of which we know. The horse is 
no exception to this rule. I have been keeping both 
stallions and mares upon cement floors for many years, 
and with a noticeable improvement of their feet. When 
I sold Nicolas 21997 (43394), August 16th, 1910, the 
quality of his feet was the cause of nuich comment. 
He was in his fifteenth year, and yet his feet w^ere 
much better than when he came from the old country 
nearly 12 years prior to this time. He had been kept 
upon cement floors for many years. Horses standing 
upon cement or any other kind of floors should be w^ell 
bedded at all times. 



BARNS AND BARN BUILDING 313 

337. Earth Floors. The second best floor for horses 
is one rightly made of earth. If a good tight wall is 
placed under a barn and the inside filled with 15 to 18 
inches of the right kind of material, one has a very 
good floor. Before filling, tile shonld be laid thickly 
thronghont the ])uilding, sloping downward from the 
center to the outside if the barn is built upon level 
ground, and from the higher to the lower side if built 
upon sloping- ground or a side hill. Upon these one 
can begin to fill with clay or other soil that can be 
firmed down, or even with broken stone, brick or very 
coarse gravel. For the surface nothing will be found 
better than clay and coal cinders, equal parts of each. 
Such a floor well poundi^d down liefore using is far 
better than any plank floor. The plank floor is to be 
condemned because of absorbing filth and microbes, be- 
sides making an ideal breeding place for rats and mice. 
In addition to these objections, is that of the space be- 
low the floor being filled with poisonous gases. 

338. Barn Plans. Figure 91 gives thefront and side 
elevation of one of my barns, this one being used ex- 
clusively as a stallion or breeding barn. It has a floor 
space of 56x64 feet, and two sheds in the rear, not 
shown in the photo, 20x60 feet each. The ground floor 
plan is shown in figure 92. where it can be seen that a 
driveway 10 feet wide runs through the barn. There 
is an office 12x16 feet; a private room 8x16 feet; three 
box stalls 14.8x16 feet each; three smaller box stalls; 
an oats bin; a bran bin; pump and stairway; and a 
breeding laboratory where all tools and stove for 
heating water are kept. There is also six open stalls 
for mares during the breeding season, the sheds in the 



314 



STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 




BARNS AND BARN BUILDING 315 

rear l)einii' used for the same purpose. Every stall is 
connected with a sewer system owned by myself. The 
f^oor above affords room for 60 tons of hay. This barn 
complete was built for $3,300. 

Figure 93 is that of a barn on the farm of AVm. J. 
Knebel, three miles south of Norfolk. This barn was 
built to be used for horses only, and is 36x48 feet, 
with much space above for hay and grain. Figure 94 
is a ground floor plan of this liarn, which has cement 
floor throughout. 

Figure 95 is that of a brood mare barn which has 
given results highly satisfactory. This barn is 36x80 
feet, with eight box stalls upon one side, and nine 
open single stalls five feet wide ; two double stalls each 
10 feet wide ; a tool and harness room 5x12 feet ; and 
a grain bin 10x12 feet on the other side. There is a 
driveway of 10 feet through the barn. The box stalls 
open with sliding doors from the driveway, and there 
is a window 16x30 inches in each stall near the ceiling, 
which is ten feet from the floor. The floor is cemented 
throughout. There is space for 100 tons or more of 
hay. The cost complete was $1,925. 

339. Open Sheds. It is not necessary to build ex- 
pensive barns to be successful in breeding. An open 
shed to run under in times of bad weather will give as 
good results as the most expensive barns. I have been 
handling mares in this manner for several years, and 
with very good results. This is also a very good way 
to winter young colts. Barns are only necessary with 
mares that have to be in harness at any time. It will 
not do to work mares during cold weather and turn 
them out in the cold at night. If they have been 



316 



STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING 



warmed in the least they should have good housing at 
night. 

340. Cost of Barns. It is wholly a matter of one's 
own finances as to what a barn shall cost. A barn such 
as shown in figure 95, and which cost $1,925, can be 
l)nilt for around $800. It is all in the manner of build- 



B 




A 



Figure 94. Ground floor plan of barn shown in figure 93. 
A good farm barn. A — open stalls; B — box stalls; G — grain. 



ing and finish, as to w^hat the cost will be. The cheaper 
one will look cheaper and last a shorter time, but will 
be cpiite as likely to serve its purpose as the more 
costly one. Even the open shed which costs so little 
does quite as well if the foals are dropped after June 
first. The most noticeable difference will be the saving 
of hay and grain when using the better barns. 



BAHNS AND BARN BUILDING 



31"; 




o ■>■ 



B 



B 



B 



e 



3 



3 



Q 



3 



Figure 95. Ground floor plan of a barn for brood mares. 
A — open stalls; B — box stalls; G — grain; H — tools. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



BREEDING FACTS WORTH REMEMBERING. 

341. Salt. Breeding animals should have all the 
salt they will consume. They are prolific, or otherwise, 
in proportion to the salt contents of the body fluids. 

342. Evidence of Virility. A stallion's desire, or 
readiness to copulate, is no evidence of his virilitv. 
Some of the most virile stallions are very slow servers. 

343. Fat. Excessive fat in breeding animals is a 
potent factor in the cause of sterility, impotency and 
degeneracy. 

344. Death of Foals. Most of the young foals dy- 
ing are those coming early, rather than those coming 
later in the season. 

345. Evidence of Pregnancy. The only satisfactory 
way of knowing whether or not a mare is pregnant is 
by examination via the rectum. After the third month 
this can be done with certainty, but with sensitive 
mares may induce abortion. 

346. Frequency of Service. A draft stallion will 
sire more live foals by making one service per day, 
than he will by making two or more services daily. 
Excessive service is a frequent cause of sterility, be- 
sides producing many weakly foals. 



BREEDING FACTS WORTH REMEMBERING 319 

347. Barrenness. If your mare will not lireed, ask 
yourself why. Nature made every female a i)roducer 
of her kind. . 

348. Cost of Maintaining Barren Mares. Barren 
mares are eosting the ])reedei's of the Ignited States 
more than $200,000,000 annually. This is a tax upon 
the breeder and the country which should no longer 
be tolerated. 

349. The Brood Mare. Give the brood mare a 
chance. Her foal will sell for more money than her 
lal)or. 

350- The Capsule Serviee. Where the work is 
properly done, capsule service will result in 30 per 
cent more foals than natural service. 

351. The Care of Foals. To mature a foal into a 
good horse, recjuires good feeding as well as good 
breeding. If five pounds of oats per day will make a 
good foal, ten pounds will make a better one. 

352. The Education of the Foal. An hour spent in 
the early education of a foal, is worth more than a 
week spent later in breaking. 

353. Pure Air. No tonic ever sold over a drug 
counter is worth so much to breeding stock as pure air. 

354. Pure Water. To do their best, horses require 
pure water cpiite as much as yourself. 

355. Exercise. No foal will mature into a good 
horse, nor will a stallion sire the best foals possible, 
without an abundance of exercise. 

356. Kindness. jMany vicious horses can be made 
valuable by the vise of kindness, and many good horses 
have been spoiled by the want of it. 

357. Working Pregnant Mares. There is no reason 



320 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 

why prconant maros oan not he worked and produce 
good foals, yet taken as a whole they never have heeii. 
This should serve as a lesson in teaching us to work 
them carefully, and with good judgment. 

358. Grass. There is no food so good for the brood 
mare and her foal as good grass, and the more sa when 
fed in connection with good oats. 

359. The Value of Good Hocks. Look well to the 
hocks of the stallion used upon your mares. No part 
of the horse is of such vital importance. 

360. Cleanliness. In all things pertaining to the 
care of the horse, cleanliness should be regarded as of 
the greatest necessity for successful breeding. 

361. Breeds. Be satisfied with nothing below the 
best, whatever your favorite breed. A good horse is 
always a member of a good breed. 

362. Feeds. If you are feeding for the fat stock 
show, or the market, corn will help in making your 
ration, but if you are feeding for foals, let corn be no 
part of your ration. 

363. The True Draft Horse. If you desire to pro- 
duce the real draft gelding, so much in demand, you 
will have to use real draft sires. 

364. The Intermediate Type. Labor as much as we 
may to produce large horses, yet the law of reversion 
will always give us an abundance of the smaller or 
intermediate types. 

365. Temperature in Breeding. The real producers 
among mares are those with low temperatures, while 
mares with temperatures indicating 101 degrees or 
higher seldom breed. 

366. Spermatozoa. The best success in capsule 



RREEDIXG FACTS WORTH KEJIKJinERIXf! 321 

breeding- will be had by keepino- the semen at a tem- 
perature of 98 to 100 degrees. 

367. A Tainted Press. In patronizing the live 
stock press of the country, the breeder should know 
positively that he is patronizing a publication repre- 
senting his industry, rather than a tainted press which 
stands for a class as against the real producer of 
horses. 

368. Shov^ing Horses. As our shows are now con- 
ducted, mares can not be used for both the show ring 
and breeding. It is for you to decide which use to 
make of them. 

369. Advertising. If you are going to advertise 
your horses, as a means to selling them, jiatronize 
journals read by actual buyers. Breeding good horses 
only, is the best advertisement. 



3477 



